List of F5, EF5, and IF5 tornadoes
This is a list of tornadoes which have been officially or unofficially labeled as F5, EF5, IF5, T10-T11, the highest possible ratings on the various tornado intensity scales. These scales – the Fujita scale, the Enhanced Fujita scale, the International Fujita scale, and the TORRO tornado intensity scale – attempt to estimate the intensity of a tornado by classifying the damage caused to natural features and man-made structures in the tornado's path.[note 1][note 2]
Background
[edit]Each year, more than 2,000 tornadoes are recorded worldwide, with the vast majority occurring in North America and Europe.[9] In order to assess the intensity of these events, meteorologist Ted Fujita devised a method to estimate maximum wind speeds within tornadic storms based on the damage caused; this became known as the Fujita scale. The scale ranks tornadoes from F0 to F5, with F0 being the least intense and F5 being the most intense. F5 tornadoes were estimated to have had maximum winds between 261 mph (420 km/h) and 318 mph (512 km/h).[10][note 3]
Following two particularly devastating tornadoes in 1997 and 1999, engineers questioned the reliability of the Fujita scale. Ultimately, a new scale was devised that took into account 28 different damage indicators; this became known as the Enhanced Fujita scale.[11] The Enhanced Fujita scale is used predominantly in North America. Most of Europe, on the other hand, uses the TORRO tornado intensity scale (or T-Scale), which ranks tornado intensity between T0 and T11; F5/EF5 tornadoes are approximately equivalent to T10 to T11 on the T-Scale.
In the United States, between 1950 and January 31, 2007, a total of 50 tornadoes were officially rated F5, and since February 1, 2007, a total of nine tornadoes have been officially rated EF5.[12][13] Since 1950, Canada has had one tornado officially rated an F5.[14] Outside the United States and Canada, seven tornadoes have been officially rated F5/EF5/IF5: two each in France and Germany, and one each in Italy, Argentina and Australia.
Several other tornadoes have also been documented as possibly attaining this status, though they are not officially rated as such. The work of tornado expert Thomas P. Grazulis revealed the existence of several dozen likely F5 tornadoes between 1880 and 1995. Grazulis also called into question the ratings of several tornadoes currently rated F5 by official sources. Many tornadoes officially rated F4/EF4 or equivalent have been disputed and described as actual F5/EF5/T10+ or equivalent tornadoes, and vice versa; since structures are completely destroyed in both cases, distinguishing between an EF4 tornado and an EF5 tornado is often very difficult.[15] Additionally, because tornado ratings are damage-based, many tornadoes capable of causing F5/EF5/T10+ damage, such as those that move through rural areas, may receive lower ratings because their strongest winds do not strike any suitable damage indicators.[16]
Research in the 2020s
[edit]
In July 2023, the International Fujita scale (IF-scale) was officially published, creating a new scale which improved on issues from the Fujita and Enhanced Fujita scales.[17]
In March 2024, Anthony W. Lyza, Matthew D. Flournoy, and A. Addison Alford, researchers with the National Severe Storms Laboratory, Storm Prediction Center, CIWRO, and the University of Oklahoma's School of Meteorology, published a paper stating, ">20% of supercell tornadoes may be capable of producing EF4–EF5 damage".[18]
In May 2024, researchers with the University of Western Ontario's Northern Tornado Project and engineering department conducted a case study on the 2018 Alonsa EF4 tornado, the 2020 Scarth EF3 tornado, and the 2023 Didsbury EF4 tornado. In their case study, the researchers assessed extreme damage caused by the tornado which is ineligible for ratings on the Canadian Enhanced Fujita scale or the American Enhanced Fujita scale (EF-scale). In their analysis, it was determined all three tornadoes caused damage well-beyond their assigned EF-scale ratings, with all three tornadoes having EF5-intensity winds. At the end of the analysis, the researchers stated, "the lofting wind speeds given by this model are much higher than the rating based on the ground survey EF-scale assessment. This may be due to the current tendency to bias strong EF5 tornadoes lower than reality, or limitations in conventional EF-scale assessments".[19]
List of events
[edit]
Detailed map
The tornadoes on this list have been formally rated F5 by an official government source. Unless otherwise noted, the source of the F5 rating is the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS), as shown in the archives of the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) and National Climatic Data Center (NCDC).[20][21]
Prior to 1950, assessments of F5 tornadoes are based primarily on the work of Thomas P. Grazulis. The NCDC has accepted 38 of his F5 classifications of tornadoes occurring between 1880 and 1950. In addition to the accepted ones, Grazulis rated a further 25 during the same period which were not accepted. Grazulis' work has identified 16 additional F5 tornadoes between 1950 and 1995,[22] with four later being accepted by the NCDC.[21] From 1950 to 1970, tornadoes were assessed retrospectively, primarily using information recorded in government databases, as well as newspaper photographs and eyewitness accounts. Beginning in 1971, tornadoes were rated by the NWS using on-site damage surveys.[23]
As of February 1, 2007, tornadoes in the United States are rated using the Enhanced Fujita scale, which replaced the Fujita scale in order to more accurately correlate tornadic intensity with damage indicators and to augment and refine damage descriptors. No earlier tornadoes will be reclassified on the Enhanced Fujita scale, and no new tornadoes in the United States will be rated on the original Fujita scale. France and Canada also adopted the EF-Scale in subsequent years. Since the creation of the International Fujita scale in 2018, two tornadoes have been rated IF5.
Official F5/EF5/IF5 tornadoes
[edit]Worldwide, a total of 67 tornadoes have been officially rated F5/EF5/IF5: 59 in the United States, two each in France and Germany, and one each in Argentina, Australia, Canada, and Italy. Of the 59 tornadoes in the United States, 50 are officially rated F5 on the original Fujita scale (with dates of occurrence between May 11, 1953, and May 3, 1999), and nine are officially rated EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita scale (with dates of occurrence between May 4, 2007, and May 20, 2013).
In total worldwide, 55 of these tornadoes have been rated F5, ten have been rated EF5, and two have been rated IF5.
F5 tornadoes
[edit]Worldwide, 55 tornadoes have the rating of F5 on the Fujita scale.
| Day | Year | Country | Subdivision | Location | Fatalities | Rated by |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jun 29 | 1764 | Germany | Mecklenburg-Vorpommern | Woldegk | 1 | ESSL, Genzmer |
| 1764 Woldegk tornado — This extremely intense tornado caused tremendous damage to vegetation and large debris from leveled homes was carried over 10 km (6.2 mi). This tornado was among the strongest ever recorded and rated as F5/T11, indicating potential winds over 300 mph (480 km/h). The rating was assigned based on several surveys by German scientist Gottlob Burchard Genzmer. 5-to-10-centimetre-diameter (2.0 to 3.9 in) hail occurred during this tornado as well.[24] | ||||||
| Apr 23 | 1800 | Germany | Saxony | Hainichen | 0 | ESSL |
| Homes were completely destroyed, trees and shrubbery debarked, and several heads of livestock fatally mutilated.[25] | ||||||
| Feb 22 | 1876 | Australia | Queensland | Bowen | 0 | BoM |
| A tornado struck near the city of Bowen. In the Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) database, the tornado is marked as striking present-day Brisbane; however, local papers confirmed the tornado caused "a large amount of damage" to Bowen.[26] | ||||||
| May 11 | 1953 | United States | Texas | Lorena, Hewitt, Waco, Bellmead | 114 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[27] Grazulis |
| 1953 Waco tornado outbreak – This was the first officially-ranked F5 tornado in the United States. Homes outside Waco sustained F5-level damage. Large, multi-story buildings collapsed in downtown Waco but incurred sub-F5-level damage.[28] | ||||||
| May 29 | 1953 | United States | North Dakota | Fort Rice | 2 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[27] Grazulis |
| Tornado outbreak of May 29, 1953 – A large church was leveled and its pews were driven 4 ft (1.2 m) into the ground. Parts of a car were carried for 1⁄2 mi (0.80 km). The tornado was initially rated F4 by Grazulis, but he subsequently upgraded it to F5.[29] | ||||||
| Jun 8 | 1953 | United States | Michigan | Flushing Township, Mount Morris Township, Beecher, Genesee Township | 116 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[27] Grazulis |
| 1953 Flint-Beecher tornado – Entire blocks of homes were completely swept away, with only rows of bare slabs and empty basements remaining. Cycloidal ground scouring occurred as well.[30] Some victims were horribly mutilated or dismembered.[31][32] | ||||||
| Jun 27 | 1953 | United States | Iowa | Anita, Adair | 1 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[27] Grazulis |
| Tornado outbreak of June 27, 1953 – One farm was obliterated. Heavy machinery was thrown for more than 100 yd (91 m).[33] | ||||||
| Dec 5 | 1953 | United States | Mississippi | Vicksburg | 38 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC[27] |
| 1953 Vicksburg tornado – "Very frail" homes were leveled. Grazulis rated this tornado as an F4.[34] | ||||||
| May 25 | 1955 | United States | Oklahoma, Kansas |
Blackwell (OK) | 20 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[27] Grazulis |
| 1955 Great Plains tornado outbreak – Many homes were swept away in town.[35] | ||||||
| May 25 | 1955 | United States | Oklahoma, Kansas |
Udall | 80 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[36] Grazulis |
| 1955 Great Plains tornado outbreak – Nearly every structure in Udall was leveled. Vehicles were thrown and stripped down to their frames, including a pickup truck that was partially wrapped around a tree. A 30-by-40-foot (9.1 by 12.2 m) concrete block building was obliterated, with the foundation left mostly bare. Numerous trees were debarked as well.[37] | ||||||
| Apr 3 | 1956 | United States | Michigan | Saugatuck, Hudsonville, Grand Rapids | 18 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[36] Grazulis |
| Tornado outbreak of April 2–3, 1956 – Many homes and businesses were swept completely away, leaving bare foundations behind. Extensive wind-rowing of debris was observed and vehicles were tossed hundreds of yards as well. One home that was swept away had all of its tile flooring scoured from the foundation. Grazulis initially listed this tornado as an F4 but noted that it "probably produced F5 damage"; he subsequently upgraded it to F5.[38] | ||||||
| May 20 | 1957 | United States | Kansas, Missouri |
Spring Hill (KS), Kansas City (MO) | 44 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[36] Grazulis |
| May 1957 Central Plains tornado outbreak sequence – Entire rows of homes were swept away, with extensive wind-rowing of structural debris noted in nearby fields. Some homes had their anchor-bolted[citation needed] subfloors swept away as well, leaving only empty basements behind. A steel-reinforced[citation needed] school was partially leveled and many shops and businesses sustained F5 damage. Homes were leveled in both states, but F5-level damage occurred to both homes and stores in Missouri, chiefly the neighborhoods of Martin City, Ruskin Heights, and Hickman Mills.[39] | ||||||
| Jun 20 | 1957 | United States | North Dakota, Minnesota |
Fargo (ND), Moorhead (MN) | 10 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[36] Grazulis, Fujita |
| Fargo tornado – Homes in the newest part of Fargo were leveled, some of which were swept away. Part of the Golden Ridge subdivision was scattered long distances into nearby fields. Fujita considered this more intense than the strongest tornadoes he surveyed from April 11, 1965.[40] | ||||||
| Dec 18 | 1957 | United States | Illinois | Sunfield | 3 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[36] Grazulis |
| Tornado outbreak sequence of December 18–20, 1957 – The entire Sunfield community "vanished."[41] | ||||||
| Jun 4 | 1958 | United States | Wisconsin | Menomonie, Colfax | 21 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[36] Grazulis |
| Tornado outbreak of June 3–4, 1958 – Homes were swept away and numerous trees were completely debarked. A car was wrapped around the side of a small steel[citation needed] bridge that collapsed in the tornado. Grazulis initially rated this as an F4, but later upgraded it to F5.[42] | ||||||
| May 5 | 1960 | United States | Oklahoma | Prague, Iron Post, Sapulpa | 5 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[36] Grazulis |
| Prague-Sapulpa, Oklahoma tornado– Homes were swept away between Prague and Paden, at “Iron Post,” and at the northwest edge of Sapulpa.[43] | ||||||
| Apr 3 | 1964 | United States | Texas | Wichita Falls | 7 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[36] Grazulis |
| 1964 Wichita Falls tornado – Two homes adjacent to each other were swept away at F5 intensity and a boxcar was thrown 100 yd (91 m). A car was thrown a block and a half.[44] | ||||||
| May 5 | 1964 | United States | Nebraska | Bradshaw | 4 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[36] Grazulis |
| 1964 Central Nebraska tornado – Numerous farms were swept away.[45] | ||||||
| May 8 | 1965 | United States | South Dakota | Colome | 0 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[46] Grazulis |
| Early May 1965 tornado outbreak – Many farms were destroyed, including three that were swept completely away.[47] | ||||||
| Mar 3 | 1966 | United States | Mississippi | Jackson, Flowood, Leesburg, Forkville, Midway | 57 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[46] Grazulis |
| 1966 Candlestick Park tornado outbreak – Homes were swept away and a brick church was obliterated. The pavement was scoured from roads and cars were thrown more than 1⁄2 mi (0.80 km) from where they originated. The newly-built Candlestick Park shopping center was leveled and concrete masonry blocks were scattered for long distances. Steel girders were "twisted like wet noodles" at a glass plant.[48] | ||||||
| Jun 8 | 1966 | United States | Kansas | Topeka | 16 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[46] Grazulis |
| Tornado outbreak sequence of June 1966 – Entire rows of homes were swept away and grass was scoured from lawns. Eight homes incurred F5-level damage on Burnett's Mound, disproving a myth that the mound protected Topeka from tornadoes.[49] | ||||||
| Oct 14 | 1966 | United States | Iowa | Belmond | 6 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC[46] |
| A house was swept away on the outskirts of town. On this basis, the tornado was officially rated F5, however, the home was likely poorly anchored as debris was deposited in a neat pile near the foundation and nearby homes only showed F1-level damage. Grazulis rated this tornado as an F4.[50] | ||||||
| Apr 23 | 1968 | United States | Ohio | Wheelersburg, Gallipolis | 7 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC[46] |
| Tornado outbreak of April 21–24, 1968 – Homes were swept away with only their foundations left in some cases. A large metal electrical transmission tower was ripped off at the base and thrown. The F5 rating is disputed as structures swept away were not anchored properly. Grazulis rated this tornado as an F4.[51] | ||||||
| May 15 | 1968 | United States | Iowa | Charles City | 13 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[46] Grazulis |
| 1968 Hansell-Charles City tornado – Many homes and farms were leveled or swept away. Very intense, cycloidal ground scouring associated with multiple vortices was noted.[52] | ||||||
| May 15 | 1968 | United States | Iowa | Oelwein, Maynard | 5 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[46] Grazulis |
| 1968 Oelwein tornado – Homes were swept completely away in both towns.[53] | ||||||
| Jun 13 | 1968 | United States | Minnesota | Tracy | 9 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[46] Grazulis |
| 1968 Tracy tornado – Several businesses, farms, and homes were swept completely away. A heavy boxcar was thrown more than a full block and two others were thrown 300 yd (270 m). A steel I-beam was carried for 2 mi (3.2 km) on a piece of roof. Extensive ground scouring occurred as well.[54] | ||||||
| May 11 | 1970 | United States | Texas | Lubbock | 26 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[46] Grazulis, Fujita |
| Lubbock tornado – Homes were swept away at F5 intensity and trees were almost completely debarked. A high-rise building suffered structural deformation, a 13-ton (26,000 lb; 12,000 kg) metal fertilizer tank was thrown nearly 1 mi (1.6 km) through the air, and large oil tanks were carried for over 300 yd (270 m); however, none of these cases were deemed to have the required winds of F5 intensity. This tornado was surveyed by Fujita and individual cases of damage in Lubbock were used as guidelines for the newly created Fujita scale. This tornado was originally rated F6 but was later downgraded to F5.[55][56] | ||||||
| Feb 21 | 1971 | United States | Louisiana, Mississippi |
Delhi (LA), Waverly (LA), Delta City (MS), Inverness (MS), Moorhead (MS) | 47 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[46] Grazulis |
| 1971 Inverness tornado – This was the sole F5 tornado on record in Louisiana. Numerous small homes were completely leveled in both states, but the only official F5 damage occurred in Louisiana as damage in Mississippi only reached F4-level intensity. Grazulis originally rated this tornado as an F4 but later upgraded it to F5.[57] | ||||||
| Jan 10 | 1973 | Argentina | Santa Fe Province | San Justo | 63 | Balbi, Barbieri, Grazulis |
| 1973 San Justo tornado – Masonry homes reportedly vanished with little or no trace and vehicles were thrown hundreds of meters from where they originated and were mangled beyond recognition. Large factories were completely leveled and grass was scoured from the ground. A vehicle motor was found embedded into a poured concrete wall and a tractor was thrown 500 m (1,600 ft) into a wooded area.[58] This slow-moving tornado was not rated until 2017.[59] | ||||||
| May 6 | 1973 | United States | Texas | Valley Mills | 0 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[46] Grazulis, Fujita |
| This tornado was rated F5 by wind engineers on the basis of vehicles being carried long distances. Two pickup trucks were lofted for hundreds of yards, one of which traveled 1⁄2 mi (0.80 km) through the air. Peak structural damage was only of F2 intensity as two rural barns were obliterated.[60] The F5 rating was accepted by Fujita at the time.[61] | ||||||
| Apr 3 | 1974 | United States | Indiana | Depauw, Palmyra, Martinsburg, Daisy Hill | 6 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[62] Grazulis, Fujita |
| 1974 Super Outbreak – This was one of six tornadoes on April 3 to be rated F5 by Fujita. Homes were swept completely away and entire farms were leveled.[63] | ||||||
| Apr 3 | 1974 | United States | Ohio | Xenia, Wilberforce | 32 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[62] Grazulis, Fujita |
| 1974 Xenia tornado – This was the deadliest tornado of the 1974 Super Outbreak. Aerial photography and isoline surveys by Fujita showed that entire rows of brick homes were swept away and sustained F5 damage. Wind-rowing of debris occurred in nearby fields and very intense damage was reported to steel-reinforced schools. This tornado was originally rated F6 by Fujita but was later downgraded to F5.[1][64] | ||||||
| Apr 3 | 1974 | United States | Kentucky, Indiana |
Hardinsburg (KY), Brandenburg (KY), Harrison County (IN) | 31 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[62] Grazulis, Fujita |
| 1974 Super Outbreak – Multiple well-built, anchor-bolted homes were swept away, including one that sustained total collapse of its poured concrete walk-out basement wall. The grass was scoured from the ground and aerial photography showed extensive wind-rowing in Brandenburg. Trees were completely debarked and low-lying shrubs next to leveled homes were uprooted and stripped. Multiple vehicles were also thrown hundreds of yards and stripped down to their frames.[65] | ||||||
| Apr 3 | 1974 | United States | Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio |
Rising Sun (IN), Boone County (KY), Sayler Park (West Cincinnati, OH), Mack (OH), Bridgetown (OH) | 3 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[62] Grazulis, Fujita |
| 1974 Super Outbreak – Homes were swept away in Sayler Park and a large floating restaurant barge was lifted, ripped from its moorings, and flipped upside-down by the tornado. Boats and vehicles were carried long distances through the air.[66] | ||||||
| Apr 3 | 1974 | United States | Alabama | Mount Hope, Mount Moriah, Tanner, Capshaw, Harvest | 28 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[62] Grazulis, Fujita |
| First Tanner tornado – Numerous homes were swept away and scattered. In Limestone County, where the F5 damage occurred, a large swath of trees was leveled and ground scouring occurred nearby with dirt found to have been dug up and plastered to the bark. A pump was lifted out of a well at one location and shrubbery was debarked as well.[67][68] | ||||||
| Apr 3 | 1974 | United States | Alabama, Tennessee |
Tanner (AL), Capshaw (AL), Harvest (AL), Hazel Green (AL), Vanntown (TN) | 22 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[62] NWA |
| Second Tanner tornado – This tornado is officially listed as an F5, but was rated an F4 by Grazulis and Fujita. It crossed into Tennessee and did F4 damage in both states, though the supposed F5 damage only occurred in Alabama where numerous homes were swept away and extensive wind-rowing of debris occurred. Some of the damage in Tennessee was previously rated F5, but later downgraded to F4.[67][69] | ||||||
| Apr 3 | 1974 | United States | Alabama | Guin, Twin, Delmar | 28 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[62] Grazulis, Fujita |
| 1974 Guin tornado – According to the NWS in Birmingham, Alabama, this is considered one of the strongest tornadoes ever to impact the United States. Sources indicate that F5 damage was reported along much of the path and that many homes in and near Guin sustained F5 damage. Many of these homes were swept away, their debris being scattered across fields, and some reportedly had their "foundations dislodged and in some cases swept away as well." A large industrial plant in Guin was reduced to a pile of mangled beams. Additionally, photographs showed intense wind-rowing from suction vortices. The path of the tornado was visible in satellite imagery, as thousands of trees, including in the William B. Bankhead National Forest, were snapped.[70] | ||||||
| Mar 26 | 1976 | United States | Oklahoma | Spiro | 2 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[62] Grazulis |
| Frame homes were swept away and 134,000-pound (61,000 kg) coal cars were tossed. Grazulis originally rated this tornado as an F4, but later upgraded it to F5.[71] | ||||||
| Apr 19 | 1976 | United States | Texas | Brownwood | 0 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[62] Grazulis |
| 1976 Brownwood tornado – Homes were swept away, with only a bathtub remaining on one of the foundations. Several teenagers were caught in the open and were picked up and thrown 1,000 yd (910 m; 0.57 mi) but survived. Mesquite trees were shredded. Grazulis originally rated this tornado as an F4, but later upgraded it to F5.[72] | ||||||
| Jun 13 | 1976 | United States | Iowa | Jordan | 0 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[62] Grazulis, Fujita |
| Homes were swept away and well-built farms reportedly vanished without a trace. In a conversation with Grazulis concerning the "worst" tornadoes, this tornado was reportedly mentioned by Fujita as having produced some of the most intense instances of damage he surveyed, along with the 1974 Xenia tornado.[73] | ||||||
| Apr 4 | 1977 | United States | Alabama | Birmingham, Tarrant | 22 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[74] Grazulis, Fujita |
| Tornado outbreak of April 1977 – Many homes were swept away, some of which had all of their cinder block walk-out basement walls completely swept away as well. Trees were debarked and two dump trucks were thrown through the air. Along with an example from the 1970 Lubbock tornado, Fujita used a visual example from this tornado to illustrate F5 damage.[75] | ||||||
| Apr 2 | 1982 | United States | Oklahoma | Speer, Messer, Golden, Broken Bow | 0 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[74] Fujita |
| Tornado outbreak of April 2–3, 1982 – A house was swept away with only carpet tacks left on the empty foundation. The F5 rating is disputed because the home was likely not anchored properly and its destruction "probably" reflected F3-level winds instead. Due to its appearance, Fujita maintained the F5 rating. Other houses suffered F4 damage.[76] | ||||||
| Jun 7–8 | 1984 | United States | Wisconsin | Barneveld, Black Earth | 9 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[74] Grazulis, Fujita |
| Tornado outbreak of June 7–8, 1984 – A cul-de-sac of newly built homes was swept away and vehicles were thrown hundreds of yards. Small trees were debarked as well. Like the 1966 Topeka tornado, this event also disproved a myth that a nearby ridge or "mound" protected an area from tornadoes.[77] | ||||||
| May 31 | 1985 | United States | Ohio, Pennsylvania |
Newton Falls (OH), Lordstown (OH), Niles (OH), Wheatland (PA), Hermitage (PA) | 18 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[74] Grazulis, Fujita |
| 1985 United States–Canada tornado outbreak – This tornado caused F5 damage along much of its path through Niles and Wheatland. A shopping center in Niles was obliterated, causing several deaths and sustaining F5 damage. Metal girders at the center twisted and buckled. Well-built, anchor-bolted homes were swept away and 75,000-pound (34,000 kg) petroleum storage tanks were ripped from their anchors and thrown hundreds of feet. Pavement was scoured from a parking lot and a steel-frame trucking plant was obliterated and partially swept away with the beams severely mangled. Routing slips from the plant were found wedged into the remaining asphalt of the parking lot. An airplane wing was carried 10 mi (16 km) from where it originated. The tornado remains the only F5 or EF5 in Pennsylvania history. Grazulis called it a "maxi-tornado" to denote its extreme intensity.[78] | ||||||
| Mar 13 | 1990 | United States | Kansas | Castleton, Haven, Burrton, Hesston | 1 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[74] Grazulis, Fujita |
| March 1990 Central United States tornado outbreak – Many homes and businesses were swept away in town with only slabs and empty basements remaining. Industrial buildings were obliterated and vehicles were thrown hundreds of yards and stripped down to their frames.[79][80] | ||||||
| Mar 13 | 1990 | United States | Kansas | Goessel | 1 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[74] Grazulis, Fujita |
| March 1990 Central United States tornado outbreak – Homes were obliterated and swept away, but the F5 rating was assigned due to very intense cycloidal ground scouring. The tornado is considered by some sources to be one of the strongest tornadoes ever surveyed at the time, though little detailed information about the damage is available.[81] | ||||||
| Aug 28 | 1990 | United States | Illinois | Oswego, Plainfield, Crest Hill, Joliet | 29 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[74] Grazulis, Fujita |
| 1990 Plainfield tornado – A mature corn crop was scoured from the ground, leaving nothing but bare soil behind. Several inches of topsoil were blown away as well. A 20-ton (40,000 lb; 18,000 kg) tractor-trailer was tossed from a road and thrown more than 1⁄2 mi (0.80 km) and vehicles were picked up and carried through the air. The F5 rating is based solely upon the extreme ground scouring; areas in Plainfield sustained high-end F4 structural damage, though the ground scouring nearby was much less intense than where the corn crop was obliterated. Fujita considered the ground scouring to be "comparable to the worst he had seen."[82] | ||||||
| Apr 26 | 1991 | United States | Kansas | McConnell Air Force Base, Andover | 17 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[74] Grazulis |
| 1991 Andover tornado – Many large, well-built homes with anchor bolts were swept away, leaving bare foundations behind, and the grass was scoured from the ground. Extensive wind-rowing of debris occurred, leaving streaks of debris extending away from empty foundations. Trees and small twigs were completely stripped of their bark. Vehicles were thrown up to 3⁄4 mi (1.2 km) from where they originated and were mangled beyond recognition.[83] | ||||||
| Jun 16 | 1992 | United States | Minnesota | Chandler, Lake Wilson | 1 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[74] Grazulis, Narramore |
| 1992 Chandler–Lake Wilson tornado – Multiple homes were swept away and vehicles were thrown and stripped down to their frames.[84] | ||||||
| Jul 18 | 1996 | United States | Wisconsin | Oakfield | 0 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[74] Grazulis |
| 1996 Oakfield tornado outbreak – Well-built homes with anchor bolts were swept away, including one where rebar supports were bent at 60° to 90°. Vehicles were thrown up to 400 yd (370 m) through the air and mangled beyond recognition. Crops were scoured to 1-inch (2.5 cm) stubble.[85] While listing the tornado as an F5, Grazulis considered its rating to be "somewhat questionable."[22] | ||||||
| May 27 | 1997 | United States | Texas | Jarrell | 27 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[74] Grazulis |
| 1997 Jarrell tornado – This tornado produced some of the most extreme damage ever documented. An entire subdivision of well-built and properly anchored homes was swept completely away with very little debris remaining. Long expanses of pavement, cumulatively 525 ft (160 m) in length, were torn from roads and a large swath of ground was scoured out to a depth of 18 in (46 cm). Vehicles were torn apart and scattered across fields, "several dozen" of which were reportedly never found, and a recycling plant was obliterated. Trees were completely debarked and mutilated cattle were carried more than 1⁄4 mi (0.40 km). The tornado was very slow-moving, which may have exacerbated the destruction to some extent.[86] | ||||||
| Apr 8 | 1998 | United States | Alabama | Oak Grove, Sylvan Springs, Pleasant Grove, Edgewater, Birmingham | 32 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[74] Grazulis |
| Tornado outbreak of April 6–9, 1998 – Many homes were swept away along the path.[87][88] | ||||||
| Apr 16 | 1998 | United States | Tennessee | Wayne County, Lawrence County | 0 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[89] NWA, Grazulis |
| Tornado outbreak of April 15–16, 1998 – Many large and well-built homes with anchor bolts were swept away and vehicles were thrown hundreds of yards. A swath of grass 200 ft (61 m) wide was scoured from the ground, with nothing but bare soil and clumps of dirt remaining; according to Grazulis, this phenomenon indicated "extreme" winds at ground level.[90][89][91] This tornado is the only documented F5 in the history of Tennessee.[92] | ||||||
| May 3 | 1999 | United States | Oklahoma | Amber, Bridge Creek, Newcastle, Moore, Oklahoma City, Del City, Midwest City | 36 | SPC-NWS,[20] NCDC,[89] Grazulis, DOW, Wurman |
| 1999 Bridge Creek–Moore tornado – Mobile radar recorded winds up to 302 ± 22 mph (486 ± 35 km/h), which is the highest wind speed ever measured on Earth. Many homes were swept completely away, some of which were well-bolted to their foundations, and debris from some homes was finely granulated. Severe ground and pavement scouring occurred including removing pavement. Trees and shrubs were completely debarked and vehicles were thrown up to 440 yd (400 m) from where they originated. An airplane wing was carried for several miles and a 36,000-pound (16,000 kg) freight car was bounced 3⁄4 mi (1.2 km).[93][89][94][95][96] This was the 50th and last tornado to be officially rated F5 on the Fujita scale in the United States before the introduction of the Enhanced Fujita Scale in 2007. | ||||||
| Jun 22 | 2007 | Canada | Manitoba | Elie | 0 | ECCC |
| 2007 Elie tornado – Two homes were swept away, including one that was well-bolted to its foundation. A few of the bolts themselves were snapped off. A van was thrown 150 m (490 ft) through the air and nearby trees were debarked as well.[97] Only officially rated F5 tornado in Canada.[98] Last tornado to be rated F5 due to Environment Canada utilizing the Enhanced Fujita Scale beginning April 1, 2013. | ||||||
EF5 tornadoes
[edit]Worldwide, ten tornadoes have the rating of EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita scale.
| Day | Year | Country | Subdivision | Location | Fatalities | Rated by |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aug 19 | 1845 | France | Normandy | Montville | 75 | Keraunos, ESSL, TORRO |
| Three large mills, at least one of which was newly built, were leveled and partly swept clean. One of the mills was a four-story structure that likely collapsed. Large debris was carried 30 km (19 mi) and mature trees were thrown "very far." This tornado was rated EF5 by the French Observatory of Tornadoes and Violent Thunderstorms (Keraunos), with the European Severe Storms Laboratory acknowledging the EF5 rating as its "maximum intensity", though ESSL also rated the tornado F5. TORRO rated the tornado T10.[99] | ||||||
| May 4 | 2007 | United States | Kansas | Greensburg | 11 | SPC-NWS,[20] Marshall |
| 2007 Greensburg tornado – This tornado destroyed 95% of the town, including seven well-built homes with anchor bolts that were swept away. Vehicles were thrown hundreds of yards and mangled, including a pickup truck that was split in two and found a mile away. Furthermore, freight train cars were overturned, and multi-ton oil tanks were destroyed. Fire hydrants were ripped from the ground in town and large trees were completely denuded and debarked as well.[100] Aerial views of the tornado's path showed spiral and erratic paths from suction vortices in fields before it hit Greensburg; the area was severely scoured with some vegetation removed. Just northwest of the town, extraordinary damage to evergreen trees occurred.[citation needed] This was the first tornado to have been rated EF5 after the retirement of the original Fujita Scale in the United States in February 2007. | ||||||
| May 25 | 2008 | United States | Iowa | Parkersburg, New Hartford | 9 | SPC-NWS[20] |
| 2008 Parkersburg–New Hartford tornado – Well-built homes with anchor bolts were swept away, 17 of which were assessed to have sustained EF5 damage. Two of them had no visible debris left anywhere near the foundations.[101][102] A concrete walk-out basement wall was pushed over at one home and the concrete floor was cracked. A rebar support set into the foundation of another home was found snapped in half and reinforced concrete light poles were snapped and dragged along the ground. A large industrial building was completely destroyed with metal beams twisted and sheared off at their bases and the foundation pushed clean of the metal framing and debris. Vehicles were thrown long distances and stripped down to their frames as well. Additionally, a large field east of Parkersburg was filled with finely granulated debris that was wind-rowed in long streaks. Trees were completely debarked and shrubs were uprooted and stripped in some areas. Numerous vehicles were mangled beyond recognition, including a ford minivan that was left torn apart by the winds.[101][102][103] | ||||||
| Apr 27 | 2011 | United States | Mississippi | Northern Philadelphia, Coy, Winston County, Noxubee County | 3 | SPC-NWS[20] |
| 2011 Philadelphia, Mississippi tornado – Rated EF5 based upon extreme ground scouring. The tornado dug a trench 2 ft (0.61 m) deep into a pasture, leaving nothing but large clumps of dirt and bare topsoil behind.[104] A tied-down mobile home was lofted through the air and carried 300 yd (270 m) with no indication of contact with the ground. Several vehicles were tossed hundreds of yards and wrapped around trees[104] and a steel I-beam was twisted and embedded into the ground. Pavement was scoured from roads as well and extreme debarking and denuding of trees occurred, some of which were ripped out of the ground and thrown up to 20 yd (18 m) away. | ||||||
| Apr 27 | 2011 | United States | Alabama, Tennessee |
Hamilton, Hackleburg, Phil Campbell, Mount Hope, Tanner, Athens, Harvest, Huntland | 72 | SPC-NWS[20] |
| 2011 Hackleburg–Phil Campbell tornado – This was the deadliest tornado in Alabama history and the deadliest tornado of the 2011 Super Outbreak. Numerous homes, some of which were large, well-built, and anchor-bolted were swept away. Debris from some obliterated homes was scattered and wind-rowed well away from the foundations.[105][106] One home that was swept away had its concrete stemwalls sheared off at ground level. Vehicles were thrown at least 200 yd (180 m),[105] and at least one large vehicle that was missing after the tornado was never located, another was wrapped around a debarked tree.[106] Hundreds of trees were completely debarked and twisted and in some cases were reduced only to stubs.[106] Pavement was scoured from roads, a large industrial plant was leveled to the ground, and a restaurant that was swept away had a small portion of its foundation slab torn apart as well.[106][107] | ||||||
| Apr 27 | 2011 | United States | Mississippi, Alabama |
Smithville, Shottsville | 23 | SPC-NWS[20] |
| 2011 Smithville tornado – This tornado produced some of the most violent damage ever documented. Numerous well-built, anchor-bolted brick homes were swept away. Floor tiles were ripped from the foundations of several homes. An SUV was thrown half a mile into the top of the town's water tower and was recovered on the opposite side of town. Other vehicles were torn into multiple pieces, stripped down to their frames, wrapped around trees, or simply never recovered. In the most intense damage area, all plumbing and appliances at home-sites were "shredded or missing" and debris was finely granulated.[108] Chip and tar pavement was torn from road and large trees were completely debarked. A large brick funeral home was reduced to a bare slab and extensive wind-rowing of debris occurred next to the foundation. Outside of town, the ground was deeply scoured in an open field. Additionally, low-lying vegetation and shrubbery were completely debarked and shredded.[109] | ||||||
| Apr 27 | 2011 | United States | Alabama, Georgia |
Fyffe, Shiloh, Rainsville, Sylvania, Henagar, Ider, Rising Fawn | 25 | SPC-NWS[20] |
| 2011 Rainsville tornado – Many homes were swept away, some of which had their concrete porches torn away and shattered with debris strewn up to a mile away from the foundations in some cases. A few of the homes were bolted to their foundations. An 800-pound (360 kg) safe was ripped from its anchors and thrown 600 ft (180 m) and its door was ripped from its frame. Ground scouring occurred and sidewalk pavement was pulled up. Many vehicles were mangled beyond recognition, including a pickup truck which was tossed 250 yd (230 m) and torn apart. A school bus was hurled across a highway and shredded down to its bare chassis. An underground storm shelter had much of its dirt covering scoured away and was heaved slightly out of the ground and pavement was scoured from roads. One well-built stone house was obliterated and a stone pillar was ripped completely out of the ground at that residence, pulling up a section of house foundation in the process.[110][111] | ||||||
| May 22 | 2011 | United States | Missouri | Joplin, Duquesne | 158 | SPC-NWS,[20] Marshall |
| 2011 Joplin tornado – This was the deadliest tornado in the United States since 1947. Many homes, business, and steel-frame industrial buildings were swept away and large vehicles including semi-trucks and buses were thrown hundreds of yards. A large multi-story hospital had its foundation and underpinning system so severely damaged that it was structurally compromised and had to be torn down. Reinforced concrete porches were deformed, lifted, and tossed, and 300-pound (140 kg) concrete parking stops anchored with rebar were ripped from parking lots and tossed well over 100 ft (30 m). Vehicles were thrown several blocks away from the residences where they originated and a few were never recovered. Damage to driveways was noted at some residences as well. A large steel-reinforced concrete "step and floor structure" leading to one building was warped slightly and cracked.[112] Ground and pavement scouring occurred and heavy manhole covers were removed from roads as well. On June 10, 2013, an engineering study found no evidence of EF5 structural damage in Joplin due to the poor quality of construction of many buildings. However, the EF5 rating stood as the National Weather Service in Springfield, Missouri, stated that survey team found an area of EF5 structural damage (at and around the hospital) and that it could have easily been missed in the survey. The EF5 rating was mainly based on large vehicles being thrown long distances, along with non-conventional, non-structural instances of damage, such as removal of manhole covers, pavement, concrete porches, driveways, parking stops, and the presence of wind-rowed debris. Furthermore, the engineering survey only examined a small portion of the damage swath. Timothy Marshall identified 22 homes which sustained EF5 damage, some of the most EF5 damage rated by a single tornado. This is also the deadliest single tornado in over 50 years and the deadliest day SPC "Moderate Risk" (i.e. no "High Risk" area) convective outlook day on record.[113][112][114][115] Peak winds were estimated at 250 mph (400 km/h).[116] | ||||||
| May 24 | 2011 | United States | Oklahoma | Hinton, Calumet, El Reno, Piedmont, Guthrie | 9 | SPC-NWS,[20] Wurman, DOW |
| 2011 El Reno–Piedmont tornado – Many homes were swept away, trees were completely debarked, and extensive ground scouring occurred. At the Cactus 117 oil rig, a 1,900,000-pound (860,000 kg) oil derrick was blown over and rolled several times. Cars were thrown long distances and wrapped around trees, including an SUV that was thrown 780 yd (710 m) and had its body ripped from the frame. Several cars near the beginning of the path were thrown more than 1,093 yd (999 m).[117][118] Additionally, a 20,000-pound (9,100 kg) oil tanker truck was thrown approximately 1 mi (1.6 km).[119][120] Mobile Doppler weather radar indicated wind speeds as high as 295 mph (475 km/h).[121] | ||||||
| May 20 | 2013 | United States | Oklahoma | Newcastle, Moore | 24 | SPC-NWS,[20] Marshall |
| 2013 Moore tornado – Many homes were swept away, including nine that were well-built and bolted to their foundations. Two elementary schools were completely destroyed.[122] Extensive ground scouring occurred with only bare soil left in some areas and a 10-ton (20,000 lb; 9,100 kg) propane tank was thrown more than 1⁄2 mi (0.80 km) through the air. Trees and shrubs were completely debarked, wind-rowing of debris was noted, and an oil tank was thrown a full mile from a production site while another was never found.[123][124] A manhole cover was removed near Moore Medical Center and vehicles were thrown hundreds of yards and torn into multiple pieces.[125][126] | ||||||
IF5 tornadoes
[edit]Worldwide, two tornadoes have the rating of IF5 on the International Fujita scale.
| Day | Year | Country | Subdivision | Location | Fatalities | Rated by |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jul 24 | 1930 | Italy | Treviso, Udine |
Volpago del Montello, Selva del Montello, Giavera del Montello, Nervesa della Battaglia | 23 | ESSL, TORRO |
| 1930 Montello tornado – An extremely powerful tornado which destroyed many villages and 200 homes. A large stone monastery was partially leveled to the ground. TORRO rated the tornado T10 on the TORRO scale, while the European Severe Storms Laboratory rated the tornado F5 on the Fujita scale. In May 2024, the F5 rating was changed to IF5, marking the first tornado to receive an IF5 rating on the International Fujita scale.[127] | ||||||
| Jun 24 | 1967 | France | Hauts-de-France | Palluel | 6 | ESSL, Keraunos |
| Homes were leveled or swept away in and near Palluel, cars were thrown over 200 m (220 yd) and a strong-framed building with thick walls was almost completely leveled to the ground. This tornado was rated EF5 by the French Observatory of Tornadoes and Violent Thunderstorms (Keraunos). Grazulis rated this tornado as an F3. In 2024, the F5 rating was changed to IF5.[128] | ||||||
Possible F5/EF5/IF5 tornadoes
[edit]Because the distinctions between F4/EF4/T9 and F5/EF5/T10 tornadoes are often ambiguous, the official ratings of numerous other tornadoes formally rated below F5/EF5/T10 or equivalent have been disputed, with certain government sources or independent studies contradicting the official record.
Previously rated F5/EF5/IF5 or rated F5/EF5/IF5 by others
[edit] | This is an incomplete list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by participating in discussions about tornadoes for this list. |
This list includes tornadoes previously rated F5 or EF5 by the National Weather Service as well as tornadoes rated F5/EF5 by other branches of the United States government, tornado experts (i.e. Thomas P. Grazulis, Ted Fujita), or meteorological research institutions (i.e. European Severe Storms Laboratory).
| Day | Year | Country | Subdivision | Location | Fatalities | Rated by |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mar 21 | 1952 | United States | Mississippi, Tennessee |
Byhalia (MS), Moscow (TN) | 17 | NCDC[27] |
| Tornado outbreak of March 21–22, 1952 – This tornado is officially rated F4 in tornado databases; however, the National Climatic Data Center lists this as an F5 event in a technical report listing all known F5 tornadoes.[27] The only possible F5 damage was to a concrete block structure that may or may not have been steel-reinforced. It originally was the first officially ranked F5 tornado in the United States, but was later downgraded to F4.[92] | ||||||
| Jun 9 | 1953 | United States | Massachusetts | Petersham, Barre, Rutland, Holden, Worcester, Shrewsbury, Westborough, Southborough | 94 | Grazulis |
| 1953 Worcester tornado – Many strong structures with numerous interior walls were leveled, and entire blocks of homes were swept cleanly away. The large, brick Assumption College sustained severe damage, and its upper stories were completely destroyed. A large, multi-ton storage tank was carried over a road, and trees along the path were debarked as well. Debris from this tornado was found in the Atlantic Ocean. In 1993 Grazulis noted that an F5 rating was "probably appropriate," and in a later publication of his, in 2001, the tornado was posthumously rated F5, based on newly available photographs of the "immense" destruction, which indicated that the tornado merited an F5 rating and "should" have been rated as such in 1975, but was instead rated F4 at that time. Even after an unprecedented reassessment of damages in 2005, a panel of experts assembled by the National Weather Service determined that anchoring techniques for the homes that were swept away or had completely vanished could not be determined. Without a proper engineering qualification, it would be nearly impossible to determine with 100% accuracy which damage was F5 and which was F4, as appearances would be similar. As a result, the panel decided that the rating would remain a high-end F4.[55][129] | ||||||
| May 19 | 1960 | United States | Kansas | Wamego, St. Marys | 0 | Grazulis |
| Two farms were swept away. This tornado was rated F5 by Grazulis.[130] | ||||||
| May 30 | 1961 | United States | Nebraska | Custer County, Valley County | 0 | NCDC,[36] Grazulis |
| All buildings and machinery were swept away from a farm. Widely accepted as an F5 tornado, including within a NCDC technical report;[36] however, it is listed as an F4 in the official databases.[131] | ||||||
| Apr 11 | 1965 | United States | Indiana | Dunlap | 36 | NCDC,[36] Grazulis |
| 1965 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak – This was the second violent tornado to strike Dunlap within 90 minutes. A well-built truck stop was leveled and many permanent homes were swept away in two subdivisions.[132] | ||||||
| Apr 11 | 1965 | United States | Indiana | Lebanon, Sheridan | 28 | NCDC[36] |
| 1965 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak – Farms were obliterated and vehicles were thrown up 100 yd (91 m).[133] | ||||||
| Apr 11 | 1965 | United States | Ohio | Pittsfield Township, Strongsville | 18 | NCDC,[36] Grazulis |
| 1965 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak – Homes were cleanly swept away in Strongsville and Pittsfield, and Pittsfield was completely destroyed. Only a concrete war monument remained standing in Pittsfield, where homes "vanished."[134] | ||||||
| May 8 | 1965 | United States | Nebraska | Wolbach, Primrose | 4 | NCDC,[46] Grazulis |
| Early May 1965 tornado outbreak – Homes and businesses were leveled and swept away, along with mature trees that were reduced to pulpy "matchsticks". Cars were moved 400–440 yd (0.23–0.25 mi), and the body of a truck was tossed and rolled 2 mi (3.2 km). Grazulis listed this tornado as an F5.[135] | ||||||
| Apr 27 | 1971 | United States | Kentucky | Gosser Ridge | 2 | NCDC[46] |
| 1971 Gosser Ridge tornado – Most buildings on a farm were swept away. The tornado is listed as a "questionable" F5 in the NCDC Tech Report,[46] and is rated an F4 according to Grazulis and official records.[136] | ||||||
| Mar 31 | 1973 | United States | South Carolina | Calhoun Falls, Abbeville | 7 | NCDC, Fujita |
| Over 100 homes were affected. 30 people were injured. This tornado was initially rated F5 by Ted Fujita, though it was later downgraded to F4.[137] | ||||||
| Apr 3 | 1974 | United States | Tennessee | Lincoln County, Franklin County, Coffee County | 11 | NWS, NWA |
| 1974 Super Outbreak – This intense tornado caused unverifiable F5 damage when it leveled and swept away several "well-constructed homes" in Franklin County.[136] Destroyed roughly 46 homes and 90 barns in just that county alone. Developed from the same thunderstorm that produced the first F5 Tanner tornado.[136] Previously rated F5 by NWS, but later downgraded to F4.[92] | ||||||
| Jun 9 | 1984 | Soviet Union (Russia) | Ivanovo Oblast | Ivanovo, Lunevo | 69 | TORRO, ESSL |
| 1984 Soviet Union tornado outbreak – An extremely intense multiple-vortex tornado[138] overturned a crane and "tied him into knot", threw a multi-ton water tank over 200 m (660 ft), uprooted and threw trees long distances,[139] and obliterated a reinforced concrete building.[140] The tornado was exceptionally long-lived, remaining on the ground for roughly 100 mi (160 km) over the course of two hours. At least 69 fatalities were confirmed, though the actual toll was likely higher. This tornado was originally rated as an F5, but was downgraded to an F4 in 2018.[141][142] | ||||||
| Jun 8 | 1995 | United States | Texas | McLean, Kellerville | 0 | VORTEX |
| Tornado outbreak of June 8, 1995 - Project VORTEX assessed this tornado to be an F5. Intense pavement and ground scouring occurred, with only bare soil left in some areas.[143] | ||||||
| Jun 8 | 1995 | United States | Texas | Allison | 0 | NWS, VORTEX |
| Tornado outbreak of June 8, 1995 - A National Weather Service damage survey was not conducted due in part to the extensive damage and injuries from another tornado in Pampa, Texas. Four homes were destroyed and more than 800 head of livestock were killed. An NCDC report states that "all sighting reports would place this as an F5 tornado" with storm spotters calling it "one of the biggest and meanest appearing tornadoes they had ever seen." However, this tornado hit few man-made structures and a significant amount of time elapsed before damage could be examined, so it could not be rated higher than F4.[144] | ||||||
| Apr 16 | 1998 | United States | Tennessee | Hardin County, Wayne County | 3 | NWS |
| Tornado outbreak of April 15–16, 1998 – Originally considered part of a very long-tracked F5 tornado but was later determined to have been the first in a series of three separate, violent tornadoes. Multiple homes were reduced to their foundations. Although officially rated an F4, a re-analysis conducted in 2013 by the NWS Office in Nashville noted that the damage in Wayne County may warrant EF5; however, no tornadoes are rated using the enhanced scale that occurred prior to February 2007.[91] | ||||||
| Apr 28 | 2002 | United States | Maryland | La Plata | 3 | NWS |
| 2002 La Plata tornado — Initially rated F5 by the National Weather Service, but was downgraded in a secondary damage survey was conducted by Timothy Marshall. This preliminary F5 rating, partly due to damage to a brick building in downtown La Plata, was lowered to F4, after the damage assessment team determined some of the damage was likely due to flying debris from a lumber company nearby. Damage to houses, initially rated F5, were lowered when an engineering survey determined these homes were not properly anchored, causing them to be swept off their foundations by lesser winds.[145] | ||||||
| Jul 18 | 2004 | United States | North Dakota | Marion | 0 | Gust |
| Officially rated F4, this tornado struck the farmstead near Marion, North Dakota causing extreme damage. The National Weather Service employee who surveyed the damage from this tornado, Greg Gust, rated the tornado at the "very top of the F4 scale". In an interview in 2016, Gust stated, "if I would have had the EF toolkit at that time I probably would have rated EF5" and "I'd have felt more comfortable going with the F5 rating on that".[146] | ||||||
| Apr 27 | 2011 | United States | Alabama | Tuscaloosa, Holt, Hueytown, Concord, Pleasant Grove, McDonald Chapel, Birmingham, Fultondale | 64 | NWS, Murayama, Velev, Zlateva |
| 2011 Tuscaloosa–Birmingham tornado – Officially rated high-end EF4, though the final rating was a source of controversy, and one survey team rated some of the damage as EF5. Many homes, a large section of an apartment building, and a clubhouse were swept away, though these structures were either poorly anchored, lacked interior walls, or surrounded by contextual damage not consistent with an EF5 tornado. A manhole cover was removed from a drain and thrown into a ravine near the clubhouse. A 34-ton (68,000 lb; 31,000 kg) railroad trestle support structure was thrown 100 ft (30 m) up a hill, and a 35.8-ton (71,600 lb; 32,500 kg) coal car was thrown 391 ft (119 m) through the air.[96][110] In 2019, Yuko Murayama, Dimiter Velev & Plamena Zlateva edited a book of revised academically peer-reviewed papers, in which they directly rated the Tuscaloosa tornado an EF5.[147] | ||||||
| May 24 | 2011 | United States | Oklahoma | Bradley, Washington, Goldsby | 0 | Ortega, Murayama, Velev, Zlateva |
| Tornado outbreak sequence of May 21–26, 2011 — Officially rated high-end EF4 with winds up to 200 mph (320 km/h), this tornado destroyed or obliterated multiple structures. The National Weather Service noted the structures destroyed were "falling just short of the damage indicator for an EF-5." Kiel Ortega, a National Weather Service damage surveyor discussed with another surveyor saying, "some people believe it should have been rated EF5". In 2019, Yuko Murayama, Dimiter Velev & Plamena Zlateva edited a book of revised academically peer-reviewed papers, in which they directly rated the Washington—Goldsby tornado an EF5.[148] | ||||||
| May 31 | 2013 | United States | Oklahoma | El Reno | 8 | NWS, Murayama, Velev, Zlateva |
| 2013 El Reno tornado — Originally rated as an EF5, which is based on mobile Doppler Weather Radar data of picking up winds of 302 mph (486 km/h).[121] However, the lack of available damage resulted into rating downgrading from EF5 to an EF3. This tornado holds the record for the widest tornado ever recorded at 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide.[149] In 2019, Yuko Murayama, Dimiter Velev & Plamena Zlateva edited a book of revised academically peer-reviewed papers, in which they directly rated the El Reno tornado an EF5.[147] This was reaffirmed in March 2024 by scientists with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and University of Oklahoma which stated winds between 115–150 m/s (260–340 mph; 410–540 km/h) was measured less than 100 metres (110 yd) off the ground.[18] | ||||||
Possible F5/EF5/IF5 damage
[edit] | This is an incomplete list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by participating in discussions about tornadoes for this list. |
This list includes tornadoes with possible F5 or EF5 damage indicated by the National Weather Service as well as tornadoes with possible F5/EF5 damage by other branches of the United States government, tornado experts (i.e. Thomas P. Grazulis, Ted Fujita), or meteorological research institutions (i.e. European Severe Storms Laboratory).
| Day | Year | Country | Subdivision | Location | Fatalities | Rated by |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Oct 23 | 1666 | United Kingdom | England | Lincolnshire | 3 | TORRO |
| This tornado has been officially rated at T8-T9 on the TORRO scale, indicating potential windspeeds of up to 269 mph (433 km/h). This places it weakly in the F5 category. The maximum track width of the tornado was reported as 200 m (660 ft), and the track length at 5 km (3.1 mi). The tornado reportedly killed three people, and passed through the villages of Welbourn, Wellingore, Navenby and Boothby Graffoe in Lincolnshire, and leveled large portions of each village. It is the strongest tornado on record in the British Isles.[150] This tornado is not documented by the European Severe Storms Laboratory. | ||||||
| Jun 17 | 1946 | United States, Canada |
Michigan, Ontario |
River Rouge (MI), Windsor (ON), LaSalle (ON), Tecumseh (ON) | 17 | ECCC |
| 1946 Windsor–Tecumseh tornado – This tornado was officially rated F4; however, one home had a portion of its concrete block foundation pulled out of the ground and carried away, indicating borderline F5 damage. Some victims were mutilated, dismembered or stripped of their clothes.[151] | ||||||
| May 18 | 1951 | United States | Texas | Olney | 2 | Grazulis |
| Many homes in town were destroyed, some of which were swept away with very little debris left. Grazulis called this tornado a "possible" F5.[152] | ||||||
| Sep 26 | 1951 | United States | Wisconsin | Waupaca | 6 | Grazulis |
| This tornado obliterated a trio of farmsteads. It was mentioned as a probable F5 by Grazulis.[153] | ||||||
| May 22 | 1952 | United States | Kansas | Linwood, Edwardsville | 0 | Grazulis |
| Tornado outbreak of May 21–24, 1952 – The home of a bank president was leveled. Grazulis considered the tornado to be "possibly F5."[154] | ||||||
| Jun 8 | 1953 | United States | Ohio | Cygnet | 18 | Grazulis |
| Flint–Worcester tornado outbreak sequence – Possible but unverifiable F5 damage occurred near Cygnet where homes were swept completely away. A steel-and-concrete bridge was destroyed as the tornado passed near Jerry City.[155] | ||||||
| May 1 | 1954 | United States | Texas, Oklahoma |
Crowell (TX), Vernon (TX), Snyder (OK) | 0 | Grazulis |
| Vehicles were thrown more than 100 yd (91 m), and three farms were entirely swept away. Grazulis considered the tornado to be a probable F5.[156] | ||||||
| Jul 2 | 1955 | United States | North Dakota | Walcott | 2 | Grazulis |
| A photograph of a farmhouse showed possible F5 damage.[157] | ||||||
| May 21 | 1957 | United States | Missouri | Fremont, Van Buren | 7 | Grazulis |
| May 1957 Central Plains tornado outbreak sequence – Most of Fremont was destroyed, with many structures swept away. Possible F5 damage occurred to schools, homes, and businesses near the railroad tracks, but houses in the area were poorly constructed.[158] | ||||||
| Jun 16 | 1957 | Italy | Pavia | Robecco Pavese, Valle Scuropasso | 7 | ESSL |
| Many large stone buildings were flattened. The tornado is officially rated F4, but images show possible T10/low-end F5 damage.[159] | ||||||
| Jun 10 | 1958 | United States | Kansas | El Dorado | 15 | Grazulis |
| Reports indicated possible F5-level damage to homes. A car was thrown 100 yd (91 m), but damage photographs were inconclusive as to whether F5 structural damage occurred. Nevertheless, the tornado was considered to be a probable F5 by Grazulis.[130] | ||||||
| Jun 6 | 1963 | United States | South Dakota | Swett, Patricia | 0 | Grazulis |
| A church and a home literally vanished. Grazulis considered the tornado to be "possibly" F5, but it listed as only F3 in the official database.[160] | ||||||
| Apr 12 | 1964 | United States | Kansas | Lawrence | 0 | Grazulis |
| Farms were leveled and a truck was thrown 300 yd (270 m). Grazulis noted possible F5 damage.[161] | ||||||
| Apr 23 | 1968 | United States | Kentucky, Ohio |
Falmouth (KY), Ripley (OH) | 6 | Grazulis |
| Tornado outbreak of April 21–24, 1968 – This tornado was mentioned as a possible F5 by Grazulis.[162] | ||||||
| Jun 9 | 1984 | Soviet Union (Russia) | Kostroma Oblast | Kostroma, Lyubim | 0 | Pending |
| 1984 Soviet Union tornado outbreak – Officially rated F4, but survey mentions possible F5 damage. Trees were ripped from the ground and thrown long distances. A 350,000 kg (770,000 lb) industrial crane was blown over.[163] | ||||||
| May 31 | 1985 | United States | Pennsylvania | Parker Dam State Park, Moshannon State Forest | 0 | NWS |
| 1985 United States–Canada tornado outbreak – This tornado may have been capable of producing F5 damage over rural areas.[164] | ||||||
| Jul 31 | 1987 | Canada | Alberta | Edmonton | 27 | ECCC |
| Edmonton tornado – Heavy trailers and oil tanks were tossed, and large factories were leveled. If confirmed by Environment Canada, this would make it the earliest such tornado since records have been kept, next to the 2007 Elie tornado.[165] | ||||||
| Jan 7 | 1989 | United States | Illinois | Allendale | 0 | Grazulis |
| This tornado was considered by Grazulis to be a more plausible candidate for an F5 rating than the "questionable" Oakfield tornado in 1996.[22] | ||||||
| Apr 26 | 1991 | United States | Kansas | Arkansas City, Hackney, Winfield, Tisdale | 1 | Grazulis |
| 1991 Andover tornado outbreak – According to an informal survey conducted by a group of storm chasers, one home was so obliterated that the National Weather Service survey likely missed it.[22] | ||||||
| Nov 29 | 1992 | Australia | Queensland | Bucca | 0 | Callaghan |
| Bucca tornado — One of the most violent tornadoes ever to have occurred in Australia and was the first Australian tornado to be officially rated F4. The tornado flattened some houses to the ground, trees were snapped and stones were embedded into the trunks. A refrigerator was blown away and never found and a 3-ton truck was thrown 300 m (330 yd). Jeff Callaghan, a retired senior severe weather forecaster for the Bureau of Meteorology conducted a case study on this tornado and said it "was rated a F4 or possibly an F5".[166] | ||||||
| Jun 8 | 1995 | United States | Texas | Pampa | 0 | Grazulis |
| This tornado would have likely produced F5 damage had it struck residential areas. Grazulis considered the tornado a candidate for an F6 rating based on photogrammetric video analysis.[167] | ||||||
| May 11 | 1999 | United States | Texas | Loyal Valley | 1 | Flores, Hecke |
| 1999 Loyal Valley tornado — Officially rated high-end F4, though one survey revealed potential F5 damage.[168] Two homes were completely swept away, with debris scattered over great distances. Large pieces of a pickup truck were found 3⁄4 mi (1.2 km) from the residence where it originated, and a 720-foot (220 m) stretch of pavement was scoured from a road. Ground scouring occurred, and numerous mesquite trees were completely denuded and debarked.[169] A reporter who also witnessed the destruction at Jarrell, Eddie Flores, said: "I hadn't seen anything like that. I couldn't believe what it did to animals. This was wiped clean, too, but the cattle - their hides had been ripped right off of them. Some of them were missing heads, and some were caught up and entwined in barbed wire". Had this tornado touched down in an urban area, the devastation likely would have rivaled that from Oklahoma City or the storm that leveled a subdivision in Jarrell in 1997, - stated meteorologist Bill Hecke.[170] | ||||||
| May 12 | 2004 | United States | Kansas | Harper | 0 | Haynes |
| A well-built farmhouse was erased with little debris left. Trees and shrubs were completely debarked, and cars was torn apart. Chance Haynes from the NWS in Wichita, Kansas rated this tornado as F4 for its very slow movement, but later express regret over the conservative rating.[171][172] | ||||||
| Apr 27 | 2011 | United States | Mississippi | Bellefontaine, Anchor, Houston, New Wren, Amory | 4 | Narramore, Tucker |
| 2011 Super Outbreak (list) — Was a precursor to the Smithville EF5 and officially rated as an EF3. However, meteorologist Jen Narramore along with Millersville University undergraduate Nelson Tucker reported that the NWS missed some damage indicators, such as a pickup truck that was thrown 3,000 yd (2.7 km) from US Highway 45-Alternate and landed near the site of a well-built, substantially anchor-bolted brick home that was swept clean from its foundation. Shrubs in front of the home were denuded and partially debarked. Ground and wheat were scoured along a concentrated swath near the home. A home next door, also well-built and bolted, was leveled to the ground.[173] | ||||||
| May 24 | 2011 | United States | Oklahoma | Chickasha, Blanchard, Newcastle | 1 | NWS, Murayama, Velev, Zlateva |
| 2011 Chickasha–Blanchard tornado – Officially rated a high-end EF4; however, the survey conducted by NWS Norman mentions this tornado as being a "plausible EF5". Well-built homes with anchor bolts were swept away, pavement was scoured from roads and driveways, and vehicles were thrown up to 600 yd (550 m) away, some of which were torn into multiple pieces or stripped down to their frames. Trees were reduced to completely debarked stumps, and severe ground scouring occurred, with all grass and several inches of topsoil removed in some areas. A reinforced concrete dome home was severely damaged and cracked.[96][174][175] In 2019, Yuko Murayama, Dimiter Velev & Plamena Zlateva edited a book of revised academically peer-reviewed papers, in which they directly rated the Chickasha tornado an EF5.[147] | ||||||
| Mar 2 | 2012 | United States | Indiana, Kentucky | Fredericksburg, Henryville, Bedford | 11 | NWS |
| Tornado outbreak of March 2–3, 2012 — A violent stovepipe tornado (often referred to as the "Henryville Tornado") that carved a 49 mi (79 km) path of damage from Fredericksburg, Indiana to the Bedford, Kentucky area. This tornado was officially rated a low-end EF4. In 2022, the National Weather Service of Louisville referred to a possible EF5 damage location at a demolished house, where a pickup truck was blown away and never found and a backhoe was deposited into the basement of the house.[176] | ||||||
| Apr 27 | 2014 | United States | Arkansas | Mayflower, Vilonia | 16 | NWS, Marshall, Grazulis, Murayama, Velev, Zlateva |
| Tornado outbreak of April 27–30, 2014 – Officially rated high-end EF4, though the rating was a major source of controversy, and meteorologist/civil engineer Timothy P. Marshall noted that the rating assigned was "lower-bound" and "the possibility that EF5 winds could have occurred" despite the structural flaws responsible for the EF4 rating.[177][178] Numerous homes were swept completely away with only bare slabs left, including one that was well-bolted to its foundation, and extensive wind-rowing of debris occurred. Trees were completely debarked and denuded, shrubs were shredded and debarked, and vehicles were thrown hundreds of yards and stripped down to their frames. In one instance, a well-built house was swept away, but an EF5 rating was not assigned as it was just one house and it had been struck by debris from other buildings.[179] A large 30,000-pound (14,000 kg) metal fertilizer tank was found approximately 3⁄4 mi (1.2 km) away from where it originated.[177][180][181] Extensive ground scouring occurred as well.[182][183] In 2019, Yuko Murayama, Dimiter Velev & Plamena Zlateva edited a book of revised academically peer-reviewed papers, in which they directly rated the Mayflower—Vilonia tornado an EF5.[147] | ||||||
Possible F5/EF5/IF5 intensity
[edit] | This is an incomplete list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by participating in discussions about tornadoes for this list. |
This list includes tornadoes believed or confirmed to have been at F5 or EF5 intensity. These indications can come from the United States government, Doppler on Wheels, tornado experts (i.e. Thomas P. Grazulis, Ted Fujita), or meteorological research institutions (i.e. European Severe Storms Laboratory).
| Day | Year | Country | Subdivision | Location | Fatalities | Rated by |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jul 20 | 1931 | Poland | Lublin Voivodeship | Lublin | 6 | ESSL |
| This tornado is officially rated F4; however, the Polish Weather Service estimated winds at 246 to 324 mph (396 to 521 km/h), potentially ranking it as an F5.[142] | ||||||
| Apr 2 | 1957 | United States | Texas | Dallas | 10 | Segner |
| Tornado outbreak sequence of April 2–5, 1957 — E. Segner estimated 302 mph (486 km/h), which is based on obliteration of a large billboard.[184] | ||||||
| Aug 29 | 1969 | China | Hebei, Tianjin | Bazhou, Tianjin | 146 | Chen |
| Trees were completely debarked, and numerous reinforced concrete factories were leveled. The village of Chuhegang was completely destroyed. This tornado was rated >F3, with indications of possible F4 or F5 intensity.[185][186] | ||||||
| May 24 | 1973 | United States | Oklahoma | Union City | 2 | NSSL |
| A carport was carried intact to the north while the rest of the house was cleanly swept away. A barn was destroyed and trees still standing were denuded, a flatbed truck rolled over, a car was stripped down to its frame. A small frame house was also swept away.[187][188] | ||||||
| May 27 | 1973 | United States | Alabama | Greensboro, Brent, Centreville, Montevallo, Columbiana, Wilsonville, Childersburg | 7 | NWS, Brasher |
| 1973 Central Alabama tornado — John Brasher, a reporter and photographer for the Centreville Press, stated that as the tornado struck Main Street in Brent, “the tornado’s already violent F4 winds would ramp up to, and possibly beyond, the threshold of F5 strength”.[189] The National Weather Service in Birmingham, Alabama, noted the rating for this tornado was F4 on the Fujita scale, which has a wind speed range of 207 to 260 miles per hour (333 to 418 km/h). However, the wind speeds assigned to this tornado was between 210 and 261 miles per hour (338 and 420 km/h), indicating the potential that this tornado had winds up to F5 intensity.[190] | ||||||
| Apr 26 | 1991 | United States | Oklahoma | Red Rock | 0 | Bluestein, DOW, Lyza, Flournoy, Alford |
| 1991 Andover tornado outbreak – Mobile Doppler weather radar used by storm chasers indicated wind speeds in the range of the F5 threshold, with winds up to 268 mph (431 km/h). Pavement and ground scouring occurred, and a large oil rig was toppled. The tornado is officially rated F4, but is mentioned by some sources as an F5 or possible F5.[191] This was reaffirmed in March 2024 by scientists with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and University of Oklahoma which stated 120–125 metres per second (270–280 mph; 430–450 km/h) was measured between 150–190 metres (160–210 yd) off the ground.[18] | ||||||
| May 30 | 1998 | United States | South Dakota | Spencer | 6 | Wurman, DOW, Lyza, Flournoy, Alford |
| Late-May 1998 tornado outbreak and derecho – DOW recorded maximum wind speeds at 264 mph (425 km/h) at 160 ft (49 m) above ground level, which the NWS classified at almost ground level. Such wind speeds would fall well into the EF5 range on the Enhanced Fujita Scale, though the maximum damage intensity observed in the town of Spencer was F4. The town's water tower was toppled to the ground, an apartment building was leveled, and many homes were completely destroyed, a few of which were swept away.[192] This was reaffirmed in 2024 after Anthony W. Lyza, Matthew D. Flournoy, and A. Addison Alford, researchers with the National Severe Storms Laboratory, Storm Prediction Center, CIWRO, and the University of Oklahoma's School of Meteorology, published a paper stating the radar "showed a broad swath" of wind speeds in the F4 to minimal F5 range. They went on to say, "However, no F5/EF5 damage was observed, despite winds observed well into the EF5 range".[18] | ||||||
| May 3 | 1999 | United States | Oklahoma | Mulhall | 2 | Lyza, Flournoy, Alford |
| 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak – In March 2024, Anthony W. Lyza, Matthew D. Flournoy, and A. Addison Alford, researchers with the National Severe Storms Laboratory, Storm Prediction Center, CIWRO, and the University of Oklahoma's School of Meteorology, published a paper stating 115 metres per second (260 mph; 410 km/h) was measured in the tornado only 30 metres (33 yd) off the ground.[18] | ||||||
| May 28 | 2013 | United States | Kansas | Bennington | 0 | The Weather Channel, DOW, Wurman, Kosiba, Robinson, Marshall |
| Tornado outbreak of May 26–31, 2013 – Officially rated EF3. However, a DOW instrument estimated winds inside the tornado at 247 mph (398 km/h), 300 ft (91 m) above the ground.[193] According to the Joshua Wurman, Karen Kosiba, Paul Robinson, and Tim Marshall in their research, the DOW windspeed measurements were found to be 264 mph (425 km/h), 153 ft (47 m) above the ground.[194] | ||||||
| May 9 | 2016 | United States | Oklahoma | Sulphur | 0 | NWS, Marshall |
| Tornado outbreak of May 7–10, 2016 - This tornado was recorded to have attained 218 mph winds in an open field by RaXPol mobile radar. This would have been sufficient to produce EF5 damage had the tornado impacted any substantial structures during this time period.[195] Several homes were swept away at high-end EF3 strength, and many other outbuildings were destroyed as well. A large metal storage garage was swept away, with vehicles stored inside being thrown up to 280 yards away. An 18-year old and his cousin were able to survive the tornado by taking shelter in an interior bathroom, which was the only standing section of the house after the tornado had impacted it.[196] | ||||||
| May 24 | 2016 | United States | Kansas | Dodge City | 0 | NCEI, CSWR, DOW |
| Tornado outbreak sequence of May 22–26, 2016 – During the initial stages of development, there was DOW data on this tornado. It intensified from 40 metres per second (89 mph; 140 km/h) to 90 metres per second (201 mph; 320 km/h) in a span of 21 seconds that lasted less than a minute at those velocities. This would have been enough to produce EF5 damage briefly, based on those velocities. As the tornado moved north into a housing addition just west of Dodge City, it showed multiple vortex characteristics and did EF2 damage. One person was seriously hurt in a home that was heavily damaged.[197] | ||||||
| May 25 | 2016 | United States | Kansas | Solomon, Abilene, Chapman | 0 | NWS |
| Tornado outbreak sequence of May 22–26, 2016 – An anchor-bolted brick farm home was swept away and was ripped from its foundation so violently that part of the foundation was severely cracked, though the area surrounding the home was not swept completely clean. Vehicles and large pieces of farm machinery were thrown and mangled beyond recognition, and a section of metal railroad track was bent horizontally by the tornado. Officially rated EF4 with winds of 180 mph (290 km/h), though NWS Topeka damage surveyors later noted that based on the severity of the damage in rural areas, it "could have very well been" rated EF5 had it struck Chapman directly.[198][179][199] | ||||||
| Jun 18 | 2017 | Russia | Kurgan Oblast | Maloye Pes'yanovo | 0 | Chernokulsky, Shikhov, Bykov, Azhigov |
| The tornado was strong enough to be rated IF4 on the International Fujita scale and F4 on the Fujita scale.[200] Two log homes were leveled to the ground. Researchers at the Russian Academy of Sciences and Perm State University published a paper in the academically peer-reviewed journal Atmosphere, providing an assessment of this tornado in which they state that the tornado possessed EF5 intensity, due to it blowing down or snapping 100% of the trees in a 100-by-100-meter (110 yd) forested area.[201][202] | ||||||
| Aug 3 | 2018 | Canada | Manitoba | Alonsa, Silver Ridge | 1 | Northern Tornadoes Project |
| Tornadoes of 2018 — Rated EF4, with maximum windspeeds in the EF5 range.[203] A later study, also by the Northern Tornadoes Project, determined that the tornado lofted haybales into Lake Manitoba, which they estimated required winds between 87.9 m/s (197 mph) and 127 m/s (280 mph).[204] | ||||||
| Apr 13 | 2019 | United States | Mississippi | Greenwood Springs | 0 | Lyza, Goudeau, Knupp |
| Tornado outbreak of April 13–15, 2019 — This tornado was officially rated EF2, based on an incomplete damage survey from the National Weather Service, where 8.7 miles (14 km) of the tornado's track was unable to be officially surveyed. A NEXRAD radar only 980 yards (900 m) away from the tornado documented radial velocities of up to 182 mph (293 km/h). A research team, from the University of Oklahoma, National Severe Storms Laboratory, and University of Alabama in Huntsville was funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to investigate the unsurveyed portion of the tornado track. In their survey, published in Monthly Weather Review, they note that the tornado "produced forest devastation and electrical infrastructure damage up to at least EF4 intensity" and conclude by writing that "the Greenwood Springs event was a violent tornado, potentially even EF5 intensity."[205] | ||||||
| Aug 7 | 2020 | Canada | Manitoba | Scarth | 2 | Northern Tornadoes Project |
| Tornadoes of 2020 — A photogenic tornado, rated EF3, was determined to have likely lofted two vehicles over 1 meter into the air and between 30 and 100 meters laterally. Researchers with the Northern Tornadoes Project found a median wind speed of 110 m/s (250 mph) would be required to achieve this, well above the criteria for EF5 intensity.[204] | ||||||
| Dec 10 | 2021 | United States | Tennessee, Kentucky | Woodland Mills, Cayce, Mayfield, Princeton, Dawson Springs, Bremen, McDaniels | 57 | Marshall, Wienhoff, Smith, Wielgos |
| 2021 Western Kentucky tornado — A long-tracked wedge spawned by the Quad-State supercell, that damaged, destroyed, or obliterated thousands of structures along a path of 165.6 mi (266.5 km) while moving at 60 mph (97 km/h). In 2022, Timothy Marshall, a meteorologist, and structural and forensic engineer, Christine L. Wielgos, a meteorologist at the National Weather Service of Paducah, & Brian E. Smith, a meteorologist at the National Weather Service of Omaha, published a damage survey of portions of the tornado's track, particularly through Mayfield and Dawson Springs. At the end of the report, they said, "the tornado damage rating might have been higher had more wind resistant structures been encountered. Also, the fast forward speed of the tornado had little 'dwell' time of strong winds over a building and thus, the damage likely would have been more severe if the tornado were slower".[206] | ||||||
| July 1 | 2023 | Canada | Alberta | Didsbury | 0 | Northern Tornadoes Project |
| Tornadoes of 2023 — This EF4 tornado moved a combine harvester 80 to 100 meters from its original position. Researchers with the Northern Tornadoes Project determined the harvester was likely lofted roughly 1.26 meters into the air, with median estimated winds of 118 m/s (260 mph), above EF5 criteria.[204] | ||||||
Possible F5/EF5/IF5 tornadoes with no official rating
[edit] | This is an incomplete list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by participating in discussions about tornadoes for this list. |
Many other tornadoes have never been formally rated by an official government source but have nonetheless been described as F5/EF5/T10+ or equivalent, often by independent studies. Most of these tornadoes occurred prior to 1950, before tornadoes were rated according to standardized damage assessments, and their unofficial classifications as F5/EF5/T10+ or equivalent have been made in retrospect, largely on the basis of photographic analysis and eyewitness accounts. A few, such as the Tri-State Tornado of 1925, are widely accepted as F5/EF5/T10+ tornadoes, despite not being rated as such in official records.
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by participating in discussions about tornadoes for this list.
| Day | Year | Country | Subdivision | Location | Fatalities | Notes | Rated F5/EF5 by |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Apr 24 | 1880 | United States | Illinois | West Prairie, Christian County | 6 | Many "well built" homes were leveled and farms vanished. Its victims (both people and cattle) were reportedly carried up to half a mile. This is the earliest estimated F5 that can be verified in the U.S. according to Grazulis. (The 1953 Waco tornado is the earliest officially rated - see section.) The F5 rating is widely accepted.[93][207][208] | NWS,[209] NCDC, Grazulis |
| Jun 12 | 1881 | United States | Missouri | Hopkins | 2 | Tornado outbreak of June 1881 – Two farms were completely swept away.[93][210] May have reached F5 intensity according to Grazulis. | NCDC,[209] Grazulis |
| Jul 15 | 1881 | United States | Minnesota | Renville County | 20 | 1881 Minnesota tornado outbreak – According to Grazulis, this tornado was "probably" an F5. Severe damage occurred in Renville County where five farms were completely swept away.[210] | Grazulis |
| Jun 17 | 1882 | United States | Iowa | Grinnell | 68 | Sixteen farms were blown away and the town of Grinnell was devastated, as well as the Grinnell College campus. Debris was carried 100 mi (160 km). Caused 68 fatalities according to Grazulis.[93][211][212] | NWS, NCDC,[209] Grazulis |
| Aug 21 | 1883 | United States | Minnesota | Rochester | 37 | 1883 Rochester tornado – Numerous homes in Rochester were destroyed, some of which were oblitereted and swept away with the debris finely granulated. Trees were completely debarked, and grass and shrubbery was scoured from the ground. A large metal railroad bridge was completely destroyed and mangled. At least 10 farms outside the city were also completely leveled and swept away, with little debris recovered at some of them.[213] | NWS, Grazulis |
| Apr 1 | 1884 | United States | Indiana | Oakville | 8 | Among contemporary meteorologists, this was considered one of the most intense tornadoes observed up to that time. Parts of Oakville "vanished," with house debris scattered for miles.[214] | NWS, NCDC,[209] Grazulis |
| Jun 15 | 1892 | United States | Minnesota | Faribault County, Freeborn County, Steele County | 12 | 1892 Southern Minnesota tornado – Entire farms were obliterated, and house timbers were embedded into the ground 3 mi (4.8 km) away from the foundations.[93][215] | Grazulis |
| May 22 | 1893 | United States | Wisconsin | Willow Springs | 3 | Two farm complexes were completely swept away.[93][216] | NCDC,[209] Grazulis |
| Jul 6 | 1893 | United States | Iowa | Pomeroy | 71 | Well-built homes were swept away in four counties with F5 damage in the town of Pomeroy.[93][217] Grass was scoured from the ground, and a metal bridge was torn from its supports. A well pump and 40 ft (12 m) of piping were pulled out of the ground.[211][218] | NWS, NCDC, Grazulis |
| Sep 21 | 1894 | United States | Iowa | Kossuth County | 43 | Five farms and a home were swept away, leaving little trace.[211][219] | NWS, NCDC,[209] Grazulis |
| May 1 | 1895 | United States | Kansas | Harvey County | 8 | Farms "entirely vanished," with debris carried for miles.[93][220] | NWS,[221] |
| May 3 | 1895 | United States | Iowa | Sioux County | 9 | Farms were swept away, with debris carried for miles.[93][211][220] | NWS, Grazulis |
| May 15 | 1896 | United States | Texas | Sherman | 73 | Tornado outbreak sequence of May 1896 – This was one of the most intense tornadoes of the 19th century according to Grazulis.[222] "Extraordinary" damage occurred to farms and 20 homes that were obliterated and swept away.[93][223] An iron-beam bridge was torn apart and scattered, with one of the beams deeply embedded into the ground.[224] Trees were reduced to debarked stumps, and grass was scoured from lawns in town as well. Several headstones at a cemetery were shattered or thrown up to 250 yards through the air, and a trunk lid from Sherman was found 35 miles away.[225] Reliable reports said that numerous bodies were carried hundreds of yards,[222] and that multiple deaths occurred in 17 different families; seven deaths were in one family alone.[222][226] | NWS, NCDC,[209] Grazulis |
| May 17 | 1896 | United States | Kansas, Nebraska |
Washington County, Marshall County, Nemaha County, Brown County, Richardson County | 25 | Tornado outbreak sequence of May 1896 – An opera house in Seneca was swept away, along with some farms. Entire farms were reportedly swept clean of debris, leaving the areas "bare as the prairie."[93][222] Damage estimated at $400,000.[227] | NWS, Grazulis |
| May 25 | 1896 | United States | Michigan | Ortonville, Oakwood | 47 | Tornado outbreak sequence of May 1896 – Houses and farms were leveled and swept away, with debris carried up to 12 mi (19 km) away. Trees were completely debarked, with even small twigs stripped bare in some cases.[93][228][229] | NWS, NCDC,[209] Grazulis |
| May 18 | 1898 | United States | Wisconsin | Marathon County | 12 | Twelve farms were flattened. Timber losses totaled 100 million board feet.[93][230] | Grazulis |
| Jun 11 | 1899 | United States | Nebraska, Iowa |
Salix | 5 | This tornado impacted several farms, including one where a "fine new residence" was swept completely away.[231] | NCDC[209] |
| Jun 12 | 1899 | United States | Wisconsin | St. Croix County, New Richmond | 117 | 1899 New Richmond tornado – This tornado devastated New Richmond, leveling or sweeping away many homes and businesses.[231] A large section of the town was reduced to nothing but scattered debris and house foundations. The three-story brick Nicollet Hotel was completely leveled to the ground.[232] Numerous trees were completely debarked and shorn of their branches.[232][233] A 3,000-pound (1,400 kg) safe was carried a full block.[231] | Grazulis |
| May 10 | 1905 | United States | Oklahoma | Snyder | 97 | 1905 Snyder tornado – The town of Snyder was devastated, with many structures swept away.[93][234] A piano was found in a field 8 mi (13 km) outside town, and debris was carried 60 mi (97 km) away.[235][236] | NWS, NCDC,[209] Grazulis |
| Jun 5 | 1905 | United States | Michigan | Colling | 5 | Three farms were "wiped out of existence" with only "bits of kindling" remaining on the foundations.[93][237] | Grazulis |
| Jun 5 | 1906 | United States | Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin |
Houston County | 4 | A farm was completely leveled, and a child was reportedly carried .5 mi (0.80 km) away.[238] | NCDC[209] |
| Apr 23 | 1908 | United States | Nebraska | Cuming County, Thurston County | 3 | 1908 Dixie tornado outbreak – A well-built two-story home was swept away.[239] | NCDC,[209] Grazulis |
| May 12 | 1908 | United States | Iowa | Fremont County, Page County | 0 | Five farms had all buildings swept away, homes were "absolutely reduced to kindling," and lumber was scattered for miles.[240] | NCDC,[209] Grazulis |
| Jun 5 | 1908 | United States | Nebraska | Fillmore County | 11 | Farms vanished, with little left to indicate farmsteads ever existed at some locations.[241] | NCDC,[209] Grazulis |
| Apr 20 | 1912 | United States | Oklahoma | Kingfisher County | 2 | Tornado outbreak of April 20–22, 1912 - Entire farms were swept away.[242] | NCDC[243] |
| Apr 27 | 1912 | United States | Oklahoma | Kiowa County, Canadian County | 15 | This tornado is only listed as an F5 by a NCDC technical report,[243] and is not listed at all by Grazulis or any other sources, and is therefore a possible typographical error in the report. | NCDC[243] |
| Jun 15 | 1912 | United States | Missouri | Creighton | 5 | Two large homes were completely swept away.[93][244] | Grazulis |
| Mar 23 | 1913 | United States | Nebraska | Omaha | 113 | Tornado outbreak sequence of March 1913 – Photo analysis by Grazulis revealed possible F5 damage with many empty foundations throughout Omaha, though it is uncertain if this was a result of the tornado or cleanup efforts following the event. An F4 rating was assigned due to the uncertainty.[93][245] | Grazulis |
| Jun 11 | 1915 | United States | Kansas | Mullinville | 0 | One entire farm was swept completely away and many homes were reportedly leveled.[93][246] | NWS,[221] NCDC,[243] Grazulis |
| May 25 | 1917 | United States | Kansas | Andale, Sedgwick | 23 | Tornado outbreak sequence of May 25 – June 1, 1917 – Many structures were swept away, and trees were debarked.[247] The F5 rating is widely accepted.[248] | NWS,[221] NCDC,[243] Grazulis |
| May 26 | 1917 | United States | Illinois | Pike, Greene, Macoupin, Montgomery, Christian, Shelby, Coles | 101 | Tornado outbreak sequence of May 25 – June 1, 1917 – J. P. Carey estimated winds of over 400 mph (640 km/h).[249] This tornado family retrospectively estimated to have been an F4. | Carey |
| Jun 5 | 1917 | United States | Kansas | Kiro, Elmont | 9 | The tornado hit only 8 mi (13 km) northwest of downtown Topeka. In the damaged area, homes and farms were swept completely away. A schoolhouse was reduced to an empty stone foundation. Trees were debarked, and heavy farm machinery was carried for miles. Rated F4 by Grazulis.[250] | NCDC[243] |
| May 21 | 1918 | United States | Iowa | Crawford County, Greene County | 6 | At least two farms were swept away, and house foundations were left bare. Mattresses from the homes were transported 2 mi (3.2 km).[93][211][251] | NWS, NCDC,[243] Grazulis |
| May 21 | 1918 | United States | Iowa | Boone County, Story County | 9 | A large tornado completely swept away two entire farms. Mentioned as a possible F5 by Grazulis.[251] | Grazulis |
| Jun 22 | 1919 | United States | Minnesota | Fergus Falls | 59 | 1919 Fergus Falls tornado – This tornado produced extreme damage in Fergus Falls.[252] A three-block-wide swath was leveled, with some homes swept away.[93][253] Several summer homes were swept away into Lake Alice.[254] A train station was swept away,[254] railroad tracks were ripped from the ground,[252] and a large three-story hotel was completely leveled.[254] Numerous small trees were completely debarked.[252] | NCDC,[243] Grazulis |
| Mar 28 | 1920 | United States | Indiana, Ohio |
Jackson Township, West Liberty, Van Wert | 17 | 1920 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak – Farms were leveled and swept away in Indiana and Ohio.[255] Some homes had their floors dislodged and moved some distance.[256] Mentioned as a possible F5 by Grazulis.[257] | NWS, Grazulis |
| Jul 22 | 1920 | Canada | Saskatchewan | Frobisher, Alameda | 4 | "Splendid homes" were swept away and "reduced to splinters."[93][258] | Grazulis |
| Apr 15 | 1921 | United States | Texas, Arkansas |
Harrison County, Pike County, Hempstead County | 62 | This tornado family tracked for 112 mi (180 km), killing at least 59 people,[259] and reached a peak width of 2,000 yards (1,800 m; 1.1 mi; 1.8 km).[243] Many homes were leveled, some of which were swept away and scattered across fields. A large concrete fireplace was shifted 3 ft (0.91 m), and a vehicle was thrown 200 yd (180 m) and partially buried into the soil.[260] Tornado is not listed as an F5 by Grazulis. | NCDC[243] |
| Mar 11 | 1923 | United States | Tennessee | Pinson | 20 | An entire section of the town was swept away.[261] Bodies or body parts were found up to 1 mi (1.6 km) away.[262] This is the first of the six potential F5/EF5 intensity tornadoes to hit Tennessee on record.[263] | NCDC,[243] Grazulis |
| May 14 | 1923 | United States | Texas | Big Spring | 23 | A large ranch home and farms were swept away.[93][264] | Grazulis |
| Jun 24 | 1923 | United States | North Dakota | Hettinger | 8 | Some ranch homes had possible F5 damage.[265] | Grazulis |
| Sep 21 | 1924 | United States | Wisconsin | Clark County, Taylor County | 18 | 20 farms were destroyed, some of which were obliterated. An entire wall of a home was carried for 14 mi (23 km). Considered to be a probable F5 by Grazulis.[93][266] | Grazulis |
| Mar 18 | 1925 | United States | Missouri, Illinois, Indiana |
Ellington, Annapolis, Biehle, Gorham, Murphysboro, De Soto, West Frankfort, Parrish, Griffin, Owensville, Princeton | 695 | Tri-State tornado outbreak – This was the deadliest and longest-tracked single tornado in U.S. history, producing the highest tornado-related death toll in a single U.S. city (234, at Murphysboro, Illinois) and the largest such toll in a U.S. school (33, at De Soto, Illinois).[267] Thousands of structures were destroyed, with hundreds of homes swept away along the path, especially in Illinois and Indiana. The towns of Murphysboro, West Frankfort, Gorham, and Griffin were devastated, along with numerous other small towns and communities.[268] Gorham and Griffin were destroyed entirely, with every single structure in Gorham leveled or swept away.[267][269] Trees were debarked, debris was finely granulated, and deep ground scouring was noted in several areas as well.[269][270] A Model T Ford was thrown a long distance and stripped, railroad tracks were ripped from the ground at multiple locations along the path, and a large multi-ton coal tipple was blown over and rolled.[269][270] The F5 rating is widely accepted.[271][272] | NWS, NCDC,[243] Grazulis |
| Mar 18 | 1925 | United States | Tennessee, Kentucky |
Buck Lodge (TN), Keytown (TN), Oak Grove (TN), Angeltown (TN), Liberty (TN), Holland (KY), Beaumont (KY) | 41 | Tri-State tornado outbreak – This event was believed to have been a tornado family and is regarded as one of the most powerful tornadoes to affect Middle Tennessee. Bodies were mangled and hurled hundreds of yards, homes were obliterated, and ground scouring occurred. The tornado may have reached F5 intensity.[273] | NWS |
| Jun 3 | 1925 | United States | Iowa | Pottawattamie County, Harrison County | 0 | Nineteen buildings on two farms reportedly "vanished". This tornado took nearly the same path as the next one, below. It is described as a "possible" F5.[274] | Grazulis |
| Jun 3 | 1925 | United States | Iowa | Pottawattamie County, Harrison County | 1 | Parts of two farms and some homes swept away, but they may have been hit by both tornadoes, thus the uncertainty of a possible F5.[93][274] | Grazulis |
| Apr 12 | 1927 | United States | Texas | Rocksprings | 74 | This massive tornado swept away or leveled 235 out of 247 structures, more than 90% of the town, killing or injuring a third of the population. Many of the structures were reduced to bare foundations, leaving "no trace of lumber or contents." Acres of ground were "swept bare" in some parts of town.[55][275] | NWS, Grazulis |
| May 7 | 1927 | United States | Kansas | Barber County, McPherson County | 10 | Tornado outbreak of May 1927 – Many farms were destroyed and some were swept completely away.[93][276] | NWS,[221] |
| Jul 16 | 1927 | United States | Kansas | Dunlap, Lebo | 3 | Two farms incurred possible F5-level damage.[277] | Grazulis |
| Sep 13 | 1928 | United States | Nebraska | Cuming County, Thurston County, Dakota County | 5 | Three rural schools houses were obliterated, at least one was "swept entirely away".[278] Possible F5 damage, according to Grazulis, was in an area where two farms "were completely leveled".[279] 66 homes and at least another 450 buildings were damaged or destroyed. The tornado caused $1 million in damages.[280] | Grazulis |
| Apr 10 | 1929 | United States | Arkansas | Sneed | 23 | This tornado is considered the only F5 on record in Arkansas. It destroyed the Sneed community, reduced homes to "splinters", and made a "clean sweep" of the area. Huge trees were snapped or torn apart.[281] | NWS, Grazulis |
| May 22 | 1933 | United States | Nebraska | Tryon | 8 | Two farms were swept away.[93][282] | NCDC,[243] Grazulis |
| Jul 1 | 1935 | Canada | Saskatchewan | Benson | 1 | Several structures were leveled.[283] | Grazulis |
| Apr 5 | 1936 | United States | Mississippi | Tupelo | 216 | 1936 Tupelo–Gainesville tornado outbreak – This tornado leveled and swept away many large and well-constructed houses, killing entire families.[93][284] A concrete war monument was toppled and broken, with nearby brick gate posts snapped off at the base. Granulated structural debris was scattered and wind-rowed for miles east of the city. Pine needles were reportedly driven into tree trunks as well.[285] | NWS, Grazulis |
| Apr 26 | 1938 | United States | Nebraska | Oshkosh | 3 | A school disintegrated, and two farms were swept away. Dead bodies were carried .25 mi (0.40 km) away.[286] | NCDC,[243] Grazulis |
| Jun 10 | 1938 | United States | Texas | Clyde | 14 | All nine homes in a small subdivision "literally vanished", with bodies carried up to .5 mi (0.80 km) away. A car engine, found nearby, was carried for a similar distance. 19 railroad cars were "tossed like toys."[287][93] | Grazulis |
| Apr 14 | 1939 | United States | Oklahoma, Kansas |
Woodward County, Barber County | 7 | Homes and entire farms were swept away, and cars were carried for hundreds of yards.[288] | NCDC,[243] Grazulis |
| Jun 18 | 1939 | United States | Minnesota | Hennepin County, Anoka County | 9 | Homes were swept away in Champlin and Anoka.[93][289] A car was tossed 300 yd (270 m) and smashed to pieces. As the tornado crossed the Mississippi River, witnesses reported that so much water was sucked into the air that the riverbed was briefly exposed, and that the flow of water was stopped until the tornado reached the opposite bank.[290] Tornado is not listed as an F5 by Grazulis. | NCDC[243] |
| Apr 7 | 1940 | United States | Louisiana | Amite | 3 | This tornado produced possible F5 damage to a "large new home," killing the couple inside.[291] | Grazulis |
| Mar 16 | 1942 | United States | Illinois | Peoria County, Marshall County | 8 | Tornado outbreak of March 16–17, 1942 – Many homes were swept away in the town of Lacon, Illinois, and a rural farmhouse sustained F5-level damage.[208][292] | NWS, NCDC,[27] Grazulis |
| Apr 29 | 1942 | United States | Kansas | Oberlin | 15 | Three farms were obliterated, with all buildings and several inches of topsoil swept away. Debris from homes was granulated into splinters "no larger than match sticks."[293] | NWS,[221] NCDC,[27] Grazulis |
| Jun 17 | 1944 | United States | South Dakota, Minnesota |
Wilmot | 8 | 1944 South Dakota–Minnesota tornado outbreak - Farms were swept away with no visible debris left.[294][295] | NWS, Grazulis |
| Jun 22 | 1944 | United States | Wisconsin, Illinois |
Grant County, Stephenson County | 9 | This long-tracked tornado or tornado family destroyed many homes in both Wisconsin and Illinois. Hundreds of cattle were killed. Rated F4 by Grazulis.[136] | NCDC[27] |
| Apr 12 | 1945 | United States | Oklahoma | Antlers | 69 | Tornado outbreak of April 12, 1945 – Six hundred buildings were destroyed, and some areas were swept clean of all debris. The F5 rating is widely accepted.[296] | NCDC,[27] Grazulis |
| Apr 9 | 1947 | United States | Texas, Oklahoma |
Glazier, Higgins, Woodward | 181 | 1947 Glazier–Higgins–Woodward tornado outbreak – Several towns were partially or totally destroyed. Most structures in Glazier were swept away, where shrubbery was debarked, ground scouring occurred, and vehicles were thrown hundreds of yards. In Higgins, a 4,500 kilograms (9,900 lb) lathe was ripped from its anchors and broken in half.[297] A 40,000 lb (18,000 kg) boiler tank in Woodward was thrown a block and a half. The F5 rating is widely accepted.[298] | NWS, NCDC,[27] Grazulis |
| Apr 29 | 1947 | United States | Missouri | Worth | 14 | Most of Worth was destroyed. Half of a brick building remained standing in the village. Considered to be a possible F5 by Grazulis.[136] | Grazulis |
| May 31 | 1947 | United States | Oklahoma | Leedey | 6 | This tornado reportedly left more intense damage than the previous event did in Woodward. Many structures were swept away, leaving no debris or grass in some areas. Yards at some residences were stripped of their lawns and all vegetation, and several inches of topsoil were removed as well. The F5 rating is widely accepted, though the tornado was very slow-moving, which may have exacerbated the level of destruction to some extent.[299] | NWS, Grazulis |
| May 21 | 1949 | United States | Illinois, Indiana |
Palestine | 4 | A restaurant was leveled, and cars in the parking lot were thrown up to 300 yd (270 m) away from where they originated. Rated F4 by Grazulis.[136] | NCDC[27] |
| Jan 1 | 1970 | Australia | New South Wales | Bulahdelah | 0 | Bulahdelah tornado – Never officially rated, but is thought to have reached F4 or F5 intensity. Left a damage path 21 km (13 mi) long and 1–1.6 km (0.62–0.99 mi) wide through the Bulahdelah State Forest. According to reports, the tornado threw a tractor weighing 2,000 kilograms (4,400 lb) 100 m (330 ft) through the air, depositing it upside-down. It is estimated that the tornado destroyed over one million trees.[300] | Pending |
See also
[edit]- Outline of tornadoes
- Tornado intensity
- Lists of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
- List of tornadoes striking downtown areas of large cities
- Tornado myths
Notes
[edit]- ^ The Fujita scale was devised under the aegis of scientist T. Theodore Fujita in the early 1970s. Prior to the advent of the scale in 1971, tornadoes in the United States were officially unrated.[2] The Fujita scale has been superseded by the Enhanced Fujita scale in the U.S. since February 1, 2007;[3] Canada used the old scale until April 1, 2013;[4] nations elsewhere, like the United Kingdom, apply other classifications such as the TORRO scale.[5]
- ^ Historically, the number of tornadoes globally and in the United States was and is likely underrepresented: research by Grazulis on annual tornado activity suggests that, as of 2001, only 53% of yearly U.S. tornadoes were officially recorded. Documentation of tornadoes outside the United States was historically less exhaustive, owing to the lack of monitors in many nations and, in some cases, to internal political controls on public information.[6] Most countries only recorded tornadoes that produced severe damage or loss of life.[7] Significant low biases in U.S. tornado counts likely occurred through the early 1990s, when advanced NEXRAD was first installed and the National Weather Service began comprehensively verifying tornado occurrences.[8]
- ^ The winds estimated by the Fujita scale are estimated values and have not been verified scientifically.[10]
References
[edit]- ^ a b Fujita, T. Theodore (1974). "Jumbo Tornado Outbreak of 3 April 1974" (PDF).
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 141
- Grazulis 2001a, p. 131
- ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". The Online Tornado FAQ. Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
- ^ "Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale)". Environment and Climate Change Canada. June 6, 2013. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
- ^ "The International Tornado Intensity Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. 2016. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
- ^ Grazulis 2001a, pp. 251–254.
- ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "TORNADO CLIMATOLOGY and DATA". The Online Tornado FAQ. Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
- ^ Cook & Schaefer 2008, p. 3135.
- ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". National Climatic Data Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2013-10-28. Retrieved 2013-05-20.
- ^ a b "Fujita Tornado Damage Scale". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006. Retrieved 2013-06-25.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- "The Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF Scale)". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. August 4, 2011. Retrieved 2013-06-25.
- "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-25.
- ^ "F5 Tornado - Fujita Scale". factsjustforkids.com. Retrieved 2019-06-20.
- ^ "EF5 Tornado - Fujita Scale". factsjustforkids.com. Retrieved 2019-06-20.
- ^ "Top ten weather stories for 2007: Canada's First F5 Tornado". Environment and Climate Change Canada. December 30, 2009. Archived from the original on 2013-03-12.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 143–145
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 147–148
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Bluestein, Snyder & Houser 2015, p. 526
- Wurman et al. 2021, p. 318
- ^ Pieter Groenemeijer (ESSL); Lothar Bock (DWD); Juan de Dios Soriano (AEMet); Maciej Dutkiewicz (Bydgoszcz University of Science and Technology); Delia Gutiérrez-Rubio (AEMet); Alois M. Holzer (ESSL); Martin Hubrig; Rainer Kaltenberger; Thilo Kühne (ESSL); Mortimer Müller (Universität für Bodenkultur); Bas van der Ploeg; Tomáš Púčik (ESSL); Thomas Schreiner (ESSL); Miroslav Šinger (SHMI); Gabriel Strommer (ESSL); Andi Xhelaj (University of Genova) (July 30, 2023). "The International Fujita (IF) Scale" (PDF). European Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved 2023-07-30.
- ^ a b c d e Lyza, Anthony W.; Flournoy, Matthew D.; Alford, A. Addison (March 19, 2024). "Comparison of Tornado Damage Characteristics to Low-Altitude WSR-88D Radar Observations and Implications for Tornado Intensity Estimation" (Academic publication). Monthly Weather Review. 152 (8). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and University of Oklahoma via the American Meteorological Society: 1689–1710. Bibcode:2024MWRv..152.1689L. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-23-0242.1. Retrieved 2024-03-19.
- ^ Miller, Connell S.; Kopp, Gregory A.; Sills, David M.L.; Butt, Daniel G. (May 20, 2024). "Estimating wind speeds in tornadoes using debris trajectories of large compact objects". Monthly Weather Review. -1 (aop). American Meteorological Society: 1859–1881. Bibcode:2024MWRv..152.1859M. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-23-0251.1. Retrieved 2024-05-29.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh Edwards 2021.
- ^ a b Lott, McCown & Ross 2000, pp. 10–17.
- ^ a b c d Grazulis 2001b, p. 9.
- ^ McDonald 2001, p. 65.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Feuerstein & Kühne 2015
- "Woldegk". European Severe Weather Database. European Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved 2023-07-25. Query criteria: "29-06-1764", tornadoes, "Germany"
- "June 29, 1764 German F5/T11 Tornado". European Severe Weather Database. European Severe Storms Laboratory. December 5, 2022. Retrieved 2022-12-05 – via Internet Archive.
- Feuerstein, Bernold, ed. (June 9, 2005). "Beschreibung des Orcans, welcher den 29. Jun. 1764 einen Strich von etlichen Meilen im Stargardischen Kreise des Herzogthums Mecklenburg gewaltig verwüstet hat, in einigen Briefen an des Herrn G.C.R.S. Wohlgeb. in Neustrel. entworfen von G. B. Genzmern" (PDF) (in German). Heidelberg: Kompetenzzentrum für lokale Unwetter in Deutschland (D), Österreich (A) und der Schweiz (CH). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2005-10-31. Retrieved 2013-06-25 – via www.tordach.org.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- "April 23, 1800 German F5 Tornado". European Severe Weather Database. European Severe Storms Laboratory. Archived from the original on 2022-12-04. Retrieved 2022-12-04.
- "Tornado in Hainichen 23.04.1800". Archived from the original on 2022-12-04. Retrieved 2022-12-04.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- "Severe Storms Archive - Tornado 21 Feb 1876 to 22 Feb 1876". Melbourne: Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 2023-02-08.
- "The Tornado at Bowen". Brisbane Courier. Vol. 30, no. 2732. Brisbane. February 22, 1876. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-02-08 – via Trove.
- "General News". The Queenslander. Vol. 11, no. 28. Brisbane. February 26, 1876. p. 26. Retrieved 2013-06-09 – via National Library of Australia.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Lott, McCown & Ross 2000, p. 12.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 970
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 20
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 972
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 20
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 974
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 21
- Kelley, Ken (1953). "News and Video Footage". Detroit/Pontiac, MI Weather Forecast Office. White Lake, Michigan: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2021-03-21.
- ^ "June 8, 1953: Remembering the Flint-Beecher Tornado". Absolute Michigan. June 8, 2017. Retrieved 2023-12-22.
- ^ Journal, Jeff Rauschert | Flint (June 8, 2008). "People share their memories of the Beecher tornado". mlive. Retrieved 2023-12-22.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 975
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 21
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 976
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 21
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 987
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 22
- "The Great Plains Tornado Outbreak and Blackwell Tornado of 25-26 May 1955". Norman, OK Weather Forecast Office. Norman, Oklahoma: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2021-03-21.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Lott, McCown & Ross 2000, p. 13.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 987–988
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 22
- "Pictures from the Udall tornado". Wichita, Kansas Weather Forecast Office. Wichita, Kansas: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2021-03-21.
- "Storm report from the Udall tornado". Wichita, Kansas Weather Forecast Office. Wichita, Kansas: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2021-03-21.
- "1955 Udall Tornado | Wichita Eagle". Kansas.com. February 23, 2011. Archived from the original on 2013-11-19. Retrieved 2013-09-15.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 995
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 22
- Ostuno 2008, pp. 16, 32
- "1956 Tornado Outbreak: Vriesland to Trufant Tornado - Eyewitness Accounts". Grand Rapids, MI Weather Forecast Office. Grand Rapids, Michigan: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2021-03-21.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1007
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 22
- "Ruskin Heights Tornado of May 20 1957". Kansas City/Pleasant Hill, MO Weather Forecast Office. Pleasant Hill, Missouri: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2021-03-21.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Fujita 1971, p. 3
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1009
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 22
- "Digital Horizons: Item Viewer". Digitalhorizonsonline.org. June 20, 1957. Retrieved 2013-08-31.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1013
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 22
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1015
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 22
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1027
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 22
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1050
- Grazulis 2001b, pp. 5, 23
- "Wichita Falls, TX Tornado, Apr 1964 - Twister Slams Wichita Falls | GenDisasters ... Genealogy in Tragedy, Disasters, Fires, Floods". gendisasters.com. Archived from the original on 2013-11-19. Retrieved 2013-07-13.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1054
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 23
- "May 5, 1964: F5 Tornado Tracks From Adams To Butler County". Hastings, NE Weather Forecast Office. Hastings, Nebraska: National Weather Service. May 1, 2014. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Lott, McCown & Ross 2000, p. 14.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1074
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 23
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1079
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 24
- "NWS Jackson, MS - Mar. 3, 2006 40th Anniversary of the Candlestick Park Tornado". Jackson, Mississippi Weather Forecast Office. Flowood, Mississippi: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
- Bonney, James (March 5, 1966). "Tornado Plows Horrible Swath; 60 Known Dead". Schenectady Gazette. Vol. 72, no. 133 (Morning ed.). Schenectady, New York. Associated Press. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1081
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1082
- Grazulis 2001a, p. 147
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 24
- "Washburn university Devastation and Recovery". Washburn.edu. Washburn University. Retrieved 2013-12-23.
- "Personal Topeka Tornado Stories". Washburn.edu. Washburn University. Retrieved 2013-12-23.
- "Burnett's Mound Story and Legend". Chief Abraham B. Burnett Family. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1084
- Grazulis 2001a, p. 142
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 5
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 24
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1096
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 24
- "Wheelersburg Tornado 102". Sciotoville.org. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
- "Wheelersburg Tornado". Sciotoville.org. Archived from the original on 2013-10-31. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1097
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 24
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1098
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 24
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1100
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 24
- Ryan, Bob. (June 14, 1968). KSTP Coverage of 1968 Tracy tornado (motion picture). Tracy, Minnesota: KSTP. Retrieved 2013-09-06.
- ^ a b c "A list of the top 10 worst tornadoes in Texas history". Amarillo, TX Weather Forecast Office. Amarillo, Texas: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Fujita 1971, p. 12
- Grazulis 1993, p. 103
- Grazulis 1993, p. 141
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1113
- Grazulis 2001a, pp. 131–132
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 5
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 24
- Mehta et al. 1971, p. 415
- Edwards et al. 2022
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1121
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 24
- "NWS Jackson, MS - Mar. 3, 2006 40th Anniversary of the Candlestick Park Tornado". Jackson, Mississippi Weather Forecast Office. Flowood, Mississippi: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2021-02-25.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 2001a, p. 260
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 3
- Grazulis, Thomas P.; Grazulis, Doris (2000). "Woldwide Tornadoes--Argentina". The Tornado Project. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: Environmental Films. Archived from the original on 2014-01-13. Retrieved 2022-10-09.
- Prociv, Kathryn (July 25, 2013). "From domestic to international: Tornadoes around the world". United States Tornadoes. Archived from the original on 2013-08-14. Retrieved 2013-08-31.
- Viento Asesino (motion picture). Argentina: unknown. June 19, 2013. Archived from the original on 2021-12-12. Retrieved 2014-08-26.
- ^ Mariano Balbi; Pablo Barbieri (2017). "Enfoque Científico del Riesgo – Evaluación del potential de Tornados en Argentina" [Scientific Approach to Risk – Assessment of the Potential For Tornadoes in Argentina] (PDF). Anales de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Buenos Aires [Annals of the National Academy of Sciences of Buenos Aires] (in Spanish). Buenos Aires. Retrieved 2023-07-25.
- ^ National Climatic Data Center (March 27, 2024). "NCDC Storm Data for the 1973 Valley Mills tornado" (Page in a digital library). Wikisource. Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-27.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 150
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1139
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 24
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 5
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Lott, McCown & Ross 2000, p. 15.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 1150–1152
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1153
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 25
- "The Super Outbreak of April 3-4, 1974". Wilmington, OH Weather Forecast Office. Wilmington, Ohio: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1154
- Grazulis 2001a, p. 214
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 25
- Fujita & Abbey, Jr. 1983
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 1150–1152
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1154
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 25
- Fujita & Abbey, Jr. 1983
- "Don Macy Photos of April 3, 1974". April31974.com. April 3, 1974. Archived from the original on 2013-05-22. Retrieved 2013-08-31.
- "April 3, 1974: In the Path". Louisville, KY Weather Forecast Office. Louisville, Kentucky: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 1150–1152
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1156
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 25
- "Tornado Photos from Sayler Park". April31974.com. April 3, 1974. Archived from the original on 2013-08-07. Retrieved 2013-08-31.
- "Tornado Outbreak April 3 – 4, 1974" (PDF). Wilmington, OH Weather Forecast Office. Wilmington, Ohio: National Weather Service. April 19, 1974. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
- ^ a b "Aerial Pictures from April 3-4th, 1974". Huntsville, AL Weather Forecast Office. Huntsville, Alabama: National Weather Service. March 29, 2014. Retrieved 2021-04-04.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 1150–1152
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1160
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 25
- Fujita & Abbey, Jr. 1983
- "April 3-4, 1974 Limestone County Tornado Damage". Huntsville, AL Weather Forecast Office. Huntsville, Alabama: National Weather Service. March 29, 2014. Retrieved 2021-04-04.
- Taylor, Dwight (April 4, 1974). "The Sky Turned a Funny Orange". Florence Times. Florence, Alabama. p. 1.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 1150–1152
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1160
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 25
- Gordon et al. 2000, p. 8
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 1150–1152
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1161
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 25
- Jordan 1987
- "Top 10 Weather Events in the 20th Century For Alabama". NWS Birmingham, Alabama Weather Forecast Office. Calera, Alabama: National Weather Service. August 6, 2009. Retrieved 2021-04-04.
The F5 tornado, that nearly wiped the town of Guin off the map, was one of the most powerful twisters ever to strike the United States …
- "Scene looks like work of monster". The Tuscaloosa News. Vol. 156, no. 95. Tuscaloosa, Alabama. April 5, 1974. p. 1. Retrieved 2013-09-15.
- Elliot, J. B. (April 2, 2010). "The 1974 Super Outbreak". ABC33/40. Birmingham, Alabama.
- Elliott, J. B. (October 13, 2006). April 3–4 Superoutbreak of tornadoes (motion picture). Alabama: ABC33/40. Retrieved 2013-01-04.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1182
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 27
- "March 26, 1976 F-5 SPIRO OKLAHOMA TORNADO". WebSpawner. March 26, 1976. Archived from the original on 2013-07-03. Retrieved 2013-07-13.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1184
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 27
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 1186, 1187
- Grazulis 2001a, p. 214
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 27
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Lott, McCown & Ross 2000, p. 16.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 132, 142
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1192
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 28
- "Smithfield Tornado 4/4/1977". NWS Birmingham, Alabama Weather Forecast Office. Calera, Alabama: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2021-04-04.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1235
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 28
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 1259, 1260
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 28
- Fujita & Stiegler 1984
- "June 8, 1984 Barneveld, WI F5 Tornado". Milwaukee/Sullivan, WI Weather Forecast Office. Dousman, Wisconsin: National Weather Service. June 8, 2012. Retrieved 2021-04-04.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 1268–1269
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 28
- Fujita & Stiegler 1985
- "Tornado Outbreak May 31, 1985 - Pictures". Cleveland, OH Weather Forecast Office. Brooklyn Heights, Ohio: National Weather Service. April 15, 2002. Retrieved 2021-04-04.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 1292.
- ^ "Info on the March 13th 1990 Hesston KS tornado". Wichita, Kansas Weather Forecast Office. Wichita, Kansas: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Edwards et al. 2013, p. 642
- Written at Wichita, Kansas. "Kansas twister might be strongest ever recorded". Fort Scott Tribune. No. 108. Fort Scott, Kansas. Associated Press. April 10, 1990. p. 2. Retrieved 2021-04-04.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Fujita 1993
- Edwards et al. 2013, p. 642
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 2001a, p. 137
- Written at Andover, Kansas. "Kansas tornado survivors take 'shelter from the stormy blast'". The Beaver County Times (Mid-County ed.). Beaver County, Pennsylvania: Beaver Newspapers, Inc. Associated Press. April 29, 1991. p. A8. Retrieved 2021-04-04.
- ^ "Chandler–Lake Wilson Minnesota F5 Tornado of June 16, 1992". National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office Sioux Falls, SD. Sioux Falls, South Dakota: National Weather Service. January 15, 2010. Archived from the original on 2014-12-08. Retrieved 2021-04-04.
- ^ Browning (July 22, 1996). "Preliminary Local Storm Report". Written at Milwaukee/Sullivan, Wisconsin. In Grauman, Rhett (ed.). July 18, 1996 Oakfield, WI Tornado Case Study (Technical report). Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin–Madison. Retrieved 2021-04-04. ""Preliminary Local Storm Report"". Archived from the original on 2015-09-19. Retrieved 2013-07-04.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) in "July 18, 1996 Oakfield, WI Tornado Case Study". Archived from the original on 2007-10-30. Retrieved 2013-07-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link). - ^ Barricklow, Samuel D. (January 13, 2007). "Damage from the May 27, 1997 Jarrell, Texas Tornado". Jarrell, Texas Tornado Damage—May 27, 1997. Dallas County, Texas: K5KJ.net. Archived from the original on 2007-02-12. Retrieved 2021-04-04.
- ^ "Tuscaloosa Tornado of 4/8/1998". National Weather Service Birmingham, Alabama. Retrieved 2013-07-13.
- ^ Legates, David (1999). "WARNING RESPONSE AND RISK BEHAVIOR IN THE OAK GROVE - BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA, TORNADO OF 08 APRIL 1998". Colorado.edu. University of Oklahoma. Retrieved 2014-01-02.
- ^ a b c d Lott, McCown & Ross 2000, p. 17.
- ^ Grazulis 2001b, p. 30.
- ^ a b "April 16, 1998 Tornado Outbreak". National Weather Service Office in Nashville, Tennessee. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. April 17, 2013. Retrieved 2013-10-23.
- ^ a b c Gordon et al. 2000, p. 8.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed].
- ^ "The Great Plains Tornado Outbreak of May 3-4, 1999 - Storm A Information". National Weather Service Norman, Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 2017-02-11. Retrieved 2013-08-31.
- ^ "Event Details -". Storm Events Database. National Centers for Environmental Information.
- ^ a b c Jim LaDue; Tim Marshall; Kevin Scharfenberg (2012). "Discriminating EF4 and EF5 Tornado Damage" (PDF). National Weather Service Office in Norman, Oklahoma. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2013-06-26.
- ^ McCarthy, Carlsen & Slipec 2008.
- ^ "Elie Tornado Upgraded to Highest Level on Damage Scale: Canada's First Official F5 Tornado". Environment Canada (Press release). Archived from the original on 2011-06-11. Retrieved 2008-05-27.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- "British & European Tornado Extremes". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-06-21.
- Grazulis 2001a, p. 255
- "Tornade EF5 à Montville (Seine-Maritime) le 19 août 1845". Keraunos (in French). Observatoire Français des Tornades et des Orages Violents. Archived from the original on 2022-09-09. Retrieved 2022-12-06.
- "August 19, 1845 France F5 Tornado". European Severe Weather Database. European Severe Storms Laboratory. Archived from the original on 2022-12-05. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
- ^ Marshall, McCarthy & LaDue 2008.
- ^ a b Marshall, Jungbluth & Baca 2008.
- ^ a b "Details of the Parkersburg Storm Damage Survey" (PDF). Des Moines, Iowa: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2013-09-08.
- ^ "Parkersburg EF5 Damage". mesonet.agron.iastate.edu. NWs Des Moines. May 26, 2008. Retrieved 2015-01-12.
- ^ a b "Neshoba/Kemper/Winston/Noxubee Counties Tornado". srh.noaa.gov. Jackson, Mississippi: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2014-11-08.
- ^ a b "Hackleburg (Marion County) EF-5 Tornado April 27, 2011". srh.noaa.gov. Birmingham, Alabama: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2014-11-08.
- ^ a b c d "Franklin (AL) / Lawrence / Morgan / Limestone / Madison / Franklin (TN) EF-5". srh.noaa.gov. Huntsville, Alabama: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2014-11-08.
- ^ "NWS Damage Assessment Toolkit". apps.dat.noaa.gov. NOAA. Retrieved 2014-06-23.
- ^ "Smithville, MS EF-5 Tornado". Memphis, Tennessee: National Weather Service. May 30, 2011. Retrieved 2014-04-14.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- "April 2011 Tornado Response Imagery". National Geodetic Survey. Archived from the original on 2013-12-29. Retrieved 2013-09-15.
- "NWS Southern Region News - Smithville, Mississippi EF5 Tornado Damage".
- "Smithville, MS Tornado presentation". Richard Okulski. NWS Memphis, TN. October 17, 2011. Archived from the original on 2021-12-12. Retrieved 2014-03-04.
- Tucker, Nelson (June 25, 2020). "The Smithville, MS EF-5 Tornado – April 27, 2011". Tornado Talk. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
- ^ a b McCaul et al. 2012.
- ^ "National Weather Service Huntsville, AL - DeKalb County Survey Information". Srh.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2013-08-31.
- ^ a b "Joplin Tornado Survey". Storm Event Survey. Springfield, MO: National Weather Service. May 22, 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-05-26. Retrieved 2013-08-31.
- ^ Karstens et al. 2012.
- ^ https://ams.confex.com/ams/26SLS/webprogram/Manuscript/Paper211662/Joplinmerger.pdf [bare URL PDF]
- ^ "New Engineering Study Finds No EF5 Damage in Joplin". Tornado Central. The Weather Channel. Associated Press. June 10, 2013. Archived from the original on 2014-10-31. Retrieved 2013-07-01.
- ^ "National Weather Service offers insight into EF5 rating for Joplin tornado - KY3". Archived from the original on 2011-05-31.
- ^ Ladue et al. 2012.
- ^ "The Calumet-El Reno-Piedmont-Guthrie Tornado of May 24, 2011". National Weather Service – Norman, OK Weather Forecast Office. NOAA. Archived from the original on 2012-04-02.
- ^ Ortega et al. 2012.
- ^ Gardner, Jim (May 24, 2011). Tornado Hits Producing Location-Oklahoma (motion picture). Oklahoma: KFOR. Archived from the original on 2021-12-12. Retrieved 2014-01-20.
- ^ a b Snyder & Bluestein 2014.
- ^ Ortega et al. 2014, (Handout).
- ^ "The Tornado Outbreak of May 20, 2013". National Weather Service Norman, Oklahoma. May 21, 2013. Retrieved 2013-05-23.
- ^ Ortega et al. 2014.
- ^ "Damage Assessment Toolkit". apps.dat.noaa.gov. NOAA. May 20, 2013. Retrieved 2014-11-25.
- ^ Welch, Trevor (May 20, 2014). May 20th, 2013 Oklahoma tornado damage about 1 hour after (motion picture). Moore, Oklahoma: Trevor Welch. Archived from the original on 2021-12-12. Retrieved 2014-09-04.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 2001a, p. 256
- "British & European Tornado Extremes". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-06-21.
- "European Severe Weather Database". European Severe Storms Laboratory. 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-25.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- "European Severe Weather Database". European Severe Storms Laboratory. 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-25.
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 3
- "Tornade F5 à Palluel (62) le 24/06/1967". Infoclimat.fr (in French). Infoclimat. 2021. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 974–975
- Grazulis 2001a, p. 198
- O'Toole 1993, p. 146
- "Tornado". The Evening Gazette. Worcester, Massachusetts. June 10, 1953. p. 2. Retrieved 2013-09-16.
- ^ a b Grazulis 2001b, p. 22.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. [page needed]
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- ^ Grazulis 2001b, p. 23.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 1066.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 23
- "As the Sun Rose...Just Rubble". The Boston Globe. Boston, Massachusetts. April 13, 1965.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1984, p. A-76
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1074
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 24
- "Tornadoes belt Nebraska". The Tuscaloosa News. The Associated Press. May 9, 1965. Retrieved 2013-11-25.
- "Four Dead In Twister". Daytona Beach Sunday News-Journal. Vol. 40, no. 111. Associated Press. May 10, 1965. Retrieved 2013-11-25.
- Written at Primrose, Nebraska. "Tornado Death Toll Reaches 4 At Primrose". Lewiston Morning Tribune. Lewiston, Idaho. Associated Press. May 10, 1965. p. 3. Retrieved 2022-02-24.
- ^ a b c d e f Grazulis 1993, p. [page needed].
- ^ Grazulis 1993.
- ^ Alimov, G.; A. Illesh; V. Kozlov; V. Korneyev (June 1984). "120 Minutes of a Tornado". Izvestia (in Russian).
- ^ Vasiliev, A. A.; B. E. Peskov; A. I. Snitkovskii (1985a). "Tornadoes on 9th of June 1984". Gidrometizdat (in Russian): 8–15.
- ^ Rémy, Madureira. "Tornado Outbreak en Russie le 9 juin 1984" (PDF) (in French). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-08-20. Retrieved 2020-02-24.
- ^ Chernokulsky & Shikhov 2018.
- ^ a b "European Severe Weather Database". European Severe Storms Laboratory. 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-25.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- Wakimoto et al. 2003
- "Event Details - Texas, Wheeler County". Storm Events Database. National Centers for Environmental Information.
- ^ "Event Details - Texas, Hemphill County". Storm Events Database. National Centers for Environmental Information.
- ^ Evans, Donald (September 2002). "La Plata, Maryland, Tornado Outbreak of April 28, 2002" (PDF).
- ^ Multiple sources:
- "Tornado Talk Podcast Episode 18: Nightmare in Northwood". YouTube. Tornado Talk. September 3, 2016. Retrieved 2022-11-23.
National Weather Service meteorologist Greg Gust: I've had one tornado that was back in 2004 which if I would have had the EF toolkit at that time I probably would have rated 5; EF-5, and I kept it at the very top ended of the F4 scale. But there are some things that you learn through the process and with the EF scale in a few more; a lot more engineering based information in there. I'd have felt more comfortable going with the F5 rating on that.
- Tucker, Nelson. "Marion, ND F4 Tornado – July 18, 2004". TornadoTalk. Retrieved 2022-11-23.
- "Tornado Talk Podcast Episode 18: Nightmare in Northwood". YouTube. Tornado Talk. September 3, 2016. Retrieved 2022-11-23.
- ^ a b c d Yuko Murayama, Dimiter Velev & Plamena Zlateva 2019, p. 114
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Yuko Murayama, Dimiter Velev & Plamena Zlateva 2019, p. 114
- "The Washington-Goldsby Tornado of May 24, 2011". NWS Norman, OK. NOAA. Archived from the original on 2017-02-11. Retrieved 2014-08-31.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Daniel, Matt (September 5, 2013). "Why was El Reno, Oklahoma tornado downgraded to EF3?". EarthSky. EarthSky Communications. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
- "The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado". National Weather Service. June 5, 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-06-05. Retrieved 2023-07-27.
- "Event Details - Oklahoma, Canadian County". Storm Events Database. National Centers for Environmental Information. Retrieved 2023-07-27.
- ^ "British and European Extremes". TORRO. 2016. Retrieved 2022-07-04.
- ^ "Windsor Tornado - June 17, 1946". Environment Canada. July 26, 2004. Archived from the original on 2003-01-11. Retrieved 2013-06-30.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 958.
- ^ Grazulis 2001b, p. 20.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 964.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 973
- "Tornadoes Take 141 Lives, Ohio-Michigan Area Battered". The Times-Recorder. Zanesville, Ohio. June 9, 1953.
- ^ Grazulis 2001b, p. 21.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 990.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 1007.
- ^ "June 16, 1957 Italian F4 Tornado". European Severe Weather Database. European Severe Storms Laboratory. Archived from the original on 2022-12-04. Retrieved 2022-12-04.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 1048.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 1052.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 1096.
- ^ Snitkovskii, A. L. (1987). "Tornadoes in the USSR". Meteorologiya I Gidrologiya (in Russian). 9: 12–25.
- ^ "May 31, 1985 Tornado Outbreak: 35th Anniversary". State College, PA Weather Forecast Office. State College, Pennsylvania: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2021-05-19.
- ^ "Canada's Deadliest Tornadoes". Weather Doctor. Archived from the original on 2008-06-11. Retrieved 2012-11-29.
- ^ Callaghan, Jeff. "CASE STUDY: Severe Thunder Storms and Bucca Tornado, 29th November 1992" (PDF). Harden Up. Retrieved 2022-11-20.
- ^ Grazulis 2001b, p. 8.
- ^ "Outstanding Storms of the Month" (PDF). Storm Data and Unusual Phenomenon. 41 (5). National Climatic Data Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. May 1999. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-03-11. Retrieved 2014-11-28.
- ^ "Event Details - Texas, Mason County". Storm Events Database. National Centers for Environmental Information.
- ^ Richards, Charles (May 14, 1999). "Oklahoma-size tornado hits unpopulated Hill Country". Amarillo Globe-News. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.
- ^ "slow moving tornadoes". Stormtrack. January 4, 2009. Archived from the original on 2023-03-03. Retrieved 2023-05-27.
- ^ "2004-05-12:Harper/Attica tornadoes". Stormtrack. April 8, 2009. Archived from the original on 2019-06-03. Retrieved 2023-05-27.
- ^ Narramore, Jen; Tucker, Nelson (April 23, 2021). "Anchor-Okolona-Chapel Grove-Wren, MS EF3 Tornado – April 27, 2011" (Scientific and historical analysis). Tornado Talk. Archived from the original on 2024-01-04. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
- ^ "The Chickasha-Blanchard-Newcastle Tornado of May 24, 2011". National Weather Service Office in Norman, Oklahoma. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 12, 2011. Retrieved 2013-06-26.
- ^ "Damage Assessment Toolkit". apps.dat.noaa.gov. NOAA. May 24, 2011. Retrieved 2014-08-30.
- ^ "National Weather Service Staff Looks Back on the Tenth Anniversary of March 2nd 2012". YouTube. National Weather Service of Louisville. March 2022. Retrieved 2022-11-13.
- ^ a b Marshall, Timothy (November 6, 2014). "Damage Survey of the Mayflower-Vilonia, Arkansas Tornado". ams.confex.com. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2014-12-11.
- ^ Brantley, Max (May 5, 2014). "Meteorologist defends EF4 rating on Vilonia tornado". Arkansas Times. Retrieved 2015-03-04.
- ^ a b "NWS Damage Assessment Toolkit". apps.dat.noaa.gov.
- ^ "April 27, 2014 Arkansas tornado surveys" (.KML). National Weather Service Office in Little Rock, Arkansas. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. May 1, 2014. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
- ^ Gordon, Kalani (April 30, 2013). "Aerial assessment of southern states tornado damage". The Dark Room. The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved 2014-03-04.
- ^ "Video: Aerial footage of Mayflower, Vilonia tornado". thecabin.net. The Log Cabin Democrat. April 28, 2014. Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2015-03-13.
- ^ @sigtor2019 (May 25, 2022). "This event (4/27/2014 - Vilonia, AR) will be changed to EF4 (with an asterisk) * in the final version of SIGTOR2022…" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
- ^ E.P. Segner Jr. (September 7, 1958). "Estimates of Minimum Wind Forces Causing Structural Damage". Second National Conference on Applied Meteorology: Engineering. American Meteorological Society and American Society of Civil Engineers: 169–175. Retrieved 2023-09-30.
- ^ "Nature's wrath: China's six most destructive tornadoes". South China Morning Post. June 24, 2016. Retrieved 2023-12-05.
- ^ "1969年天津地区两次特大龙卷风灾后现场实拍_沽上秋影_新浪博客". blog.sina.com.cn.
- ^ Golden & Purcell 1978.
- ^ "Violent Tornadoes (F4/F5/EF-4/EF-5) in Oklahoma (1950-Present)". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2019-02-10.
- ^ Brasher, John (January 13, 2014). "Southern University/Southern Academy, Greensboro". John Brasher (BrentTornado on WordPress). Archived from the original on 2023-08-22. Retrieved 2023-08-22.
- ^ National Weather Service office in Birmingham, Alabama. "Long Track F-4 Tornado - Hale, Bibb, Perry, Shelby, Talladega and Clay Counties May 27, 1973". Centreville Tornado May 27, 1973. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2023-08-21. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. [page needed]
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- Bluestein 1999, pp. 128–129
- ^ Wurman & Alexander 2005.
- ^ Erdman, Jonathan (May 2, 2018). "Tuesday's Tornado Near Bennington, Kansas, a Déjà Vu From a Weird Tornado Path 5 Years Ago". The Weather Channel.
- ^ Wurman, Joshua; Kosiba, Karen; Robinson, Paul; Marshall, Tim (January 1, 2014). "The Role of Multiple-Vortex Tornado Structure in Causing Storm Researcher Fatalities". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 95 (1): 31–45. Bibcode:2014BAMS...95...31W. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00221.1.
- ^ "Event Details - Oklahoma, Murray County". Storm Events Database. National Centers for Environmental Information. Retrieved 2016-12-10.
- ^ Snider, Adam (May 11, 2016). "Teen saved by bathroom walls during tornado in Murray County". kfor.com. KFOR. Retrieved 2016-05-08.
- ^ "Event Details -". Storm Events Database. National Centers for Environmental Information.
- ^ Omitt, Chad (February 19, 2016). Tornado Talk Podcast Episode 29 - Top 10 of 2016 Part 2 (Enhanced Version) (motion picture). Archived from the original on 2021-12-12. Retrieved 2017-11-05.
- ^ "Wednesday, May 25th, 2016: Long Track Tornado Hits North Central Kansas". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2019-02-10.
- ^ "Maloye Pes'yanovo Kurganskaya oblast'". European Severe Weather Database. European Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved 2022-09-05. Query criteria: "18-06-2017", tornadoes, "Russian Federation"
- ^ Chernokulsky et al. 2020.
- ^ Godfrey & Peterson 2017.
- ^ Stevenson et al. 2023.
- ^ a b c Miller, Connell S.; Kopp, Gregory A.; Sills, David M.L.; Butt, Daniel G. (May 20, 2024). "Estimating wind speeds in tornadoes using debris trajectories of large compact objects". Monthly Weather Review. -1 (aop). American Meteorological Society: 1859–1881. Bibcode:2024MWRv..152.1859M. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-23-0251.1. Retrieved 2024-06-23.
- ^ Lyza, Anthony W.; Goudeau, Barrett T.; Knupp, Kevin R. (2022). "Damage Analysis and Close-Range Radar Observations of the 13 April 2019 Greenwood Springs, Mississippi, Tornado during VORTEX-SE Meso18-19". Monthly Weather Review. 150 (7): 1873–1893. Bibcode:2022MWRv..150.1873L. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-21-0281.1.
- ^ Timothy P. Marshall; Zachary B. Wienhoff; Brian E. Smith; Christine L. Wielgos (October 2022). "Damage Survey of the Mayfield, KY Tornado: 10 December 2021". AMS 30th Conference on Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society: 1–13. Retrieved 2023-07-26.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 609.
- ^ a b "Violent Tornadoes in Central and Southeast Illinois Since 1880". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2018-12-13.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Lott, McCown & Ross 2000, p. 10.
- ^ a b Grazulis 1993, p. 612
- ^ a b c d e "First F5/EF5 Tornado in Iowa Since June 1976". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2019-02-10.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, pp. 615–616.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 623
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- "Rochester Tornado Aug 21 1883 Aftermath Photos". NOAA. August 19, 2008. Retrieved 2018-12-06.
- "Rochester Tornado Aug 21 1883". August 21, 1883 Southeast Minnesota Tornadoes. NOAA. Retrieved 2018-12-06.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 628
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- "Violent Tornadoes in Indiana". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2018-12-13.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 658.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 663.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 664.
- ^ Sprague, F.W. (1893). Story of a Storm: A History of The Great Tornado at Pomeroy, Calhoun County, Iowa, July 6, 1893.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 667
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- ^ a b Grazulis 1993, p. 670.
- ^ a b c d e US Department of Commerce, NOAA. "Top Ten KS Tornadoes". www.weather.gov. Retrieved 2024-07-24.
- ^ a b c d Grazulis 1993, p. 674.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, pp. 674–675.
- ^ "Sherman's Black Friday: Texas Tornado 1896". YesterYear Once More. February 10, 2009. Archived from the original on 2021-06-24. Retrieved 2023-07-28. Includes two newspaper stories:
• "Death Rode the Gale; Several Texas Towns Visited by a Fearful Cyclone Yesterday". Leadville Daily and Evening Chronicle. May 16, 1896.
• "The Texas Cyclone; Further Reports of the Terrible Destruction Wrought. Additional Returns Only Add to the Horrors of the Catastrophe". Bangor Daily Whig and Courier. May 18, 1896. - ^ Piner 1896, pp. 18–20.
- ^ "This Day in Weather History: May 15th". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2019-02-10.
- ^ "This Day in Weather History: May 17th". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2018-12-09.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 676.
- ^ "This Day in Weather History: May 25th". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2019-02-10.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 684
- ^ a b c Grazulis 1993, p. 688.
- ^ a b "Query: New Richmond tornado". uwdc.library.wisc.edu. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center. Archived from the original on 2014-11-12. Retrieved 2014-04-16.
- ^ "Freakish Work of the Wind at New Richmond". Oshkosh Daily Northwestern. Oshkosh, Wisconsin. The Associated Press. June 15, 1899.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 705
- ^ "The Snyder, Oklahoma Tornado of 10 May 1905: Aftermath". Norman, Oklahoma: National Weather Service. March 24, 2014. Archived from the original on 2018-07-29. Retrieved 2018-12-09.
- ^ "Tornadoes in and near Snyder, Oklahoma (1905-Present)". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2018-12-10. Retrieved 2018-12-09.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 706.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 708.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 713.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 715
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 717
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. [page needed]
- Grazulis 1993, p. 732
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Lott, McCown & Ross 2000, p. 11.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 735
- ^ Grazulis 1993, pp. 737–738
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 744
- ^ Frankenfield 1917.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. [page needed]
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 751–752
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- ^ Carey, J. P. (August 1917). "The Central Illinois Tornado of May 26, 1917". Geographical Review. 4 (2). American Geographical Society: 122–130. Bibcode:1917GeoRv...4..122C. doi:10.2307/207291. JSTOR 207291.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 755.
- ^ a b Grazulis 1993, p. 760.
- ^ a b c Kellenbenz, David (July 1, 2009). "Fergus Falls F5 Tornado of June 22, 1919". Grand Forks, North Dakota: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2014-04-16.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 764
- ^ a b c "Tornado Wrecked Town, Killing 60" (PDF). New York Times. New York City. June 24, 1919. Retrieved 2013-09-11.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 768.
- ^ Mitchell 1920.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 768
- "Violent Tornadoes in Indiana". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2019-02-10.
- ^ "Destitution in wake of Alameda cyclone". Winnipeg Free Press. Winnipeg. July 24, 1920.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 773.
- ^ Hickmon 1921.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 782
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 782.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Lott, McCown & Ross 2000, pp. 11, 17
- Gordon et al. 2000, p. 8
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 783.
- ^ @sigtor2019 (April 17, 2018). "North Dakota (Tweet 3 of 3 today)worst kt's6/20/1957 10k Fargo F56/24/1923 8k Hettinger F4ranches looked l…" (Tweet). Retrieved 2018-09-15 – via Twitter.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 792.
- ^ a b Grazulis 2003, pp. 195, 231.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, pp. 795–797.
- ^ a b c Mason, Angela (2011). Death Rides the Sky.
- ^ a b Johns, Bob (2012). The 1925 Tri-State Tornado's Devastation in Franklin County, Hamilton County, and White County, Illinois.
- ^ "The List of the Strongest Tornadoes Ever Recorded (Pre-1970): Part I". ExtremePlanet. January 17, 2013.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- Lott, McCown & Ross 2000, p. 11
- Johns et al. 2013
- "1925 Tornado". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
- "March Weather Facts". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
- ^ "March 18, 1925 Tornado Outbreak". Nashville, TN Weather Forecast Office. Nashville, Tennessee: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
- ^ a b Grazulis 1993, p. 799.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 807
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- Jarboe 1927
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 808.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 813.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 820–821
- Grazulis 2003, pp. 77–81
- ^ Grazulis 1993, pp. 820–821.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 820–821
- Grazulis 2003, pp. 77–81
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 2001b, p. 18
- Grazulis 1993, pp. 238–247, 824
- "The F5 Tornado of April 10, 1929". Little Rock, Arkansas: National Weather Service. Retrieved 2013-09-10.
- "NWS Little Rock, AR - The F5 Tornado of April 10, 1929". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2018-12-13.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 852.
- ^ Grazulis 2001b, p. 18.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 865.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- "Apr 5, 1936: Tornadoes devastate Tupelo and Gainesville". History.com. Retrieved 2013-09-10.
- Morse, W. M. (1936). The Tupelo Tornado (Technical report). University, Mississippi: Mississippi Geological Survey. 31.
- "This Day in Weather History: April 5th". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
- @NWSMemphis (April 5, 2016). "TRIVIA: On April 5, 1936 a massive F5 tornado killed ~233 people in Tupelo, Mississippi. One notable survivor: 1 year old Elvis Presley" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 877
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 879.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 883
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 885.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Seeley 2006, p. [page needed]
- Hovde 1939
- ^ Grazulis 1993, pp. 713, 890.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 898
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- "The Lacon F5 Tornado of March 16, 1942". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2018-12-13.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 900
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- Hein, Linda (December 22–23, 2001). "Oberlin tornado kills 15 in 1942". McCook Daily Gazette. McCook, Nebraska. Retrieved 2013-09-01.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- Grazulis 1993, p. 900
- ^ US Department of Commerce, NOAA. "This Day in Weather History: June 17th". www.weather.gov. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- "Top Ten Deadliest Oklahoma Tornadoes (1882-Present)". Srh.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- "Survivors Wander Dazed and Helpless at Ruins". The Amarillo Globe-Times. Amarillo, Texas. April 10, 1947.
- "Stunned Victims Unable To Comprehend Disaster". The Amarillo Daily News. Amarillo, Texas. April 11, 1947.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. [page needed]
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- "Levi Holt Tells of Glazier Storm". The Hemphill County News. Texas. April 25, 1947.
- "Tornado Data, Information and Links". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
- "The Woodward Tornado of 9 April 1947". www.weather.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 2001b, p. [page needed]
- Grazulis 2003, p. 143
- "F5/EF-5 Tornadoes in Oklahoma (1905-Present)". NWS Norman, OK. NOAA. July 24, 2024.
- ^ Heidorn, Keith C. (June 1, 2007). "Tornadoes of Australia and New Zealand". The Weather Doctor. Archived from the original on 2007-06-26. Retrieved 2022-10-09.
Sources
[edit]- Bluestein, Howard B. (1999). Tornado alley: monster storms of the Great Plains. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 128–129. ISBN 978-0-19-530711-5.
- —; Snyder, Jeffrey C.; Houser, Jana B. (2015). "A Multiscale Overview of the El Reno, Oklahoma, Tornadic Supercell of 31 May 2013". Weather and Forecasting. 30 (3): 525–552. Bibcode:2015WtFor..30..525B. doi:10.1175/WAF-D-14-00152.1.
- Brooks, Harold E. (April 2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather and Forecasting. 19 (2): 310–19. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
- Chernokulsky, Alexander; Shikhov, Andrey (July 15, 2018). "1984 Ivanovo tornado outbreak: Determination of actual tornado tracks with satellite data". Atmospheric Research. 207: 111–121. Bibcode:2018AtmRe.207..111C. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2018.02.011. ISSN 0169-8095. S2CID 125778632.
- —; Shikhov, Andrey; Bykov, Alexey; Azhigov, I.O. (October 2020). "Satellite-Based Study and Numerical Forecasting of Two Tornado Outbreaks in the Ural Region in June 2017". Atmosphere. 11 (11). 1146. Bibcode:2020Atmos..11.1146C. doi:10.3390/atmos11111146.
- Cook, A. R.; Schaefer, J. T. (August 2008). "The Relation of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". Monthly Weather Review. 136 (8): 3135. Bibcode:2008MWRv..136.3121C. doi:10.1175/2007MWR2171.1.
- Edwards, Roger, ed. (March 19, 2021). "F5 and EF5 Tornadoes of the United States, 1950-present". The Online Tornado FAQ. Norman, Oklahoma: Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved 2022-02-03.
- —; LaDue, James G.; Ferree, John T.; et al. (May 2013). "Tornado intensity estimation: past, present, and future". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 94 (5). Boston: American Meteorological Society: 642. Bibcode:2013BAMS...94..641E. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00006.1.
- —; Elliott, Matthew S.; Marsh, Patrick T.; Speheger, Douglas A. (2022). Errors, Oddities and Artifacts in U.S. Tornado Data, 1995-2021 (PDF). 30th Conference Severe Local Storms, Santa Fe, NM. pp. 1–10. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
- Feuerstein, Bernold; Kühne, Thilo (September 2015). A violent tornado in mid-18th century Germany: the Genzmer Report. ECSS 2015 - European Conference on Severe Storms. Vol. 8. Wiener Neustadt, Austria: European Severe Storms Laboratory. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.3733.8085. Retrieved 2023-01-28.
- Frankenfield, H. C. (June 1917). "The Tornadoes and Windstorms of May 25–June 6, 1917" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 45 (6). Washington, D.C.: United States Weather Bureau: 291–298. Bibcode:1917MWRv...45..291F. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1917)45<291:TTAWOM>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2014-11-07.
- Fujita, T. Theodore (February 1971). Proposed Characterization of Tornadoes and Hurricanes by Area and Intensity. Texas Tech University Southwest Collection/Special Collections Library (Technical report). Satellite and Mesometeorology Research Project Research Paper No. 91. hdl:10605/261875.
- — (1973). "Tornadoes Around the World". Weatherwise. 26 (2): 56–83. Bibcode:1973Weawi..26b..56F. doi:10.1080/00431672.1973.9931633.
- —; Abbey, Jr., Robert F. (1983) [1981]. "Chapter 3: Tornadoes: The Tornado Outbreak of 3–4 April 1974". In Kessler, Edwin (ed.). The Thunderstorm in Human Affairs (2nd ed.). Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 37–66.
- —; Stiegler, D. J., eds. (June 1984). "Tornado Outbreak in the Upper Midwest on June 7-8, 1984". Storm Data. 26 (6). Asheville, North Carolina: United States Department of Commerce: 9–17.
- —; Stiegler, D. J., eds. (May 1985). "Tornado Outbreak in the United States and Canada on May 31, 1985". Storm Data. 27 (5). Asheville, North Carolina: United States Department of Commerce: 5–16.
- — (1991). "Plainfield tornado of August 28, 1990". hdl:10605/262035.
- — (1993). "Plainfield tornado of August 28, 1990". In Church, C.; Burgess, D.; Doswell, C.; Davies-Jones, R. (eds.). The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 79. American Geophysical Union. pp. 1–17. Bibcode:1993GMS....79....1F. doi:10.1029/gm079p0001. ISBN 978-0-87590-038-4.
- Godfrey, Christopher M.; Peterson, Chris J. (February 1, 2017). "Estimating Enhanced Fujita Scale Levels Based on Forest Damage Severity". Weather and Forecasting. 32 (1): 243–252. Bibcode:2017WtFor..32..243G. doi:10.1175/WAF-D-16-0104.1. ISSN 1520-0434.
- Golden, Joseph H.; Purcell, Daniel (1978). "Life Cycle of the Union City, Oklahoma Tornado and Comparison with Waterspouts". Monthly Weather Review. 106 (1): 3–11. Bibcode:1978MWRv..106....3G. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<0003:LCOTUC>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493.
- Gordon, John D.; Boyd, Bobby; Rose, Mark A.; et al. (2000). "The Forgotten F5: The Lawrence County Supercell During the Middle Tennessee Tornado Outbreak of 16 April 1998" (PDF). National Weather Digest. 24 (4). National Weather Association: 3–10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-12-18.
The authors sent a detailed letter to the SPC recommending the two tornadoes from 1974, and the 1952 tornado mentioned above, be downgraded to F4. The SPC agreed to all three of these changes. The SPC database now reflects the conclusions of Professor Fujita's map of 1974, and Grazulis 1952 tornado report (1993). ... The authors suggested that the three former F5 tornadoes in Tennessee should be reclassified as F4. These changes have been adopted, making the 16 April 1998 Lawrence County tornado the only documented F5 in the history of Tennessee.
- Grazulis, Thomas P. (May 1984). Violent Tornado Climatography, 1880–1982. OSTI (Technical report). NUREG. Washington, D.C.: Nuclear Regulatory Commission. OSTI 7099491. CR-3670.
- — (November 1990). Significant Tornadoes 1880–1989. Vol. 2. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-02-3.
- — (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
- — (2001a). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
- — (2001b). F5-F6 Tornadoes. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films.
- — (April 2003). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. The University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3538-0.
- Hickmon, W. C. (April 1921). "Tornadoes of April 15, 1921, in Arkansas and Texas". Monthly Weather Review. 49 (4). Little Rock, Arkansas: United States Weather Bureau: 194–196. Bibcode:1921MWRv...49..194H. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1921)49<194:TOAIAA>2.0.CO;2.
- Hovde, M. R. (June 1939). "The Champlin-Anoka, Minnesota Tornado". Monthly Weather Review. 67 (6). Minneapolis, Minnesota: United States Weather Bureau: 176–178. Bibcode:1939MWRv...67..176H. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1939)67<176:tcmt>2.0.co;2.
- Jarboe, J. H. (1927). "The Rocksprings, Texas, Tornado, April 12, 1927". Monthly Weather Review. 55 (4). San Antonio, Texas: United States Weather Bureau: 182–183. Bibcode:1927MWRv...55..182J. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1927)55<182:TRTTA>2.0.CO;2.
- Johns, Robert H.; Burgess, D. W.; Doswell III, C. A.; et al. (2013). Edwards, Roger (ed.). "The 1925 Tri-State Tornado Damage Path and Associated Storm System" (PDF). e-Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology. 8 (2): 1–33. doi:10.55599/ejssm.v8i2.47. S2CID 107678390. Retrieved 2014-04-18.
- Jordan, Charles (1987). Jordan, Teofista A. (ed.). April 3, 1974: A Night to Remember (PDF). Moulton, Alabama: Southern Printing. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2016-03-03 – via National Weather Service.
- Karstens, Christopher D.; Gallus, W. A. Jr.; Sarkar, Parka; Marshall, Timothy (November 7, 2012). Supplemental Damage Indicators Discovered in Recent Strong Tornadoes. 26th Conference on Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
- Ladue, James G.; Marshall, Timothy P.; Ortega, Kiel L.; Stumpf, Gregory J. (November 7, 2012). Performance of residences and shelters in the Oklahoma tornadoes of 24 May 2011. 26th Conference on Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2014-08-29.
- Lott, Neal; McCown, Sam; Ross, Tom (August 2000) [1999]. 1998-1999 Tornadoes and a Long-Term U.S. Tornado Climatology (PDF) (Technical report). National Climatic Data Center Technical Report. Asheville, North Carolina: National Climatic Data Center. 99-02.
- Lyza, Anthony W.; Goudeau, Barrett T.; Knupp, Kevin R. (2022). "Damage Analysis and Close-Range Radar Observations of the 13 April 2019 Greenwood Springs, Mississippi, Tornado during VORTEX-SE Meso18-19". Monthly Weather Review. 150 (7): 1873–1893. Bibcode:2022MWRv..150.1873L. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-21-0281.1.
- Marshall, Timothy P.; Jungbluth, Karl A.; Baca, Abigail (August 2008). The Parkersburg, IA Tornado: 25 May 2008 (PDF). 24th Conference on Severe Local Storms. Savannah, GA. Retrieved 2023-07-23.
- —; McCarthy, Daniel; LaDue, James (August 2008). Damage survey of the Greensburg, KS tornado (PDF). 24th Conference on Severe Local Storms. Savannah, GA. Retrieved 2023-07-27.
- McCarthy, Patrick J.; Carlsen, D.; Slipec, J. (October 29, 2008). Elie, Manitoba, Canada, June 22, 2007: Canada's first F5 totnado (PDF). 24th Conference on Severe Local Storms. Retrieved 2023-07-27.
- McCaul, Eugene W.; Knupp, Kevin R.; Darden, Chris; Laws, Kevin (November 7, 2012). Extreme damage incidents in the 27 April 2011 tornado superoutbreak (PDF). 26th Conference on Severe Local Storms.
- McDonald, James R. (January 2001). "T. Theodore Fujita: His Contribution to Tornado Knowledge through Damage Documentation and the Fujita Scale". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 82 (1). American Meteorological Society: 63–72. Bibcode:2001BAMS...82...63M. doi:10.1175/1520-0477(2001)000<0063:TTFHCT>2.3.CO;2.
- Mehta, Kishor C.; McDonald, James R.; Mirror, Joseph E.; et al. (October 1971). "IV. Windborne Objects and Missile Damage" (PDF). Response of Structural Systems to the Lubbock Storm (PDF) (Technical report). Storm Research Report. Lubbock, Texas: Texas Tech University. 03, The Lubbock Storm. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-03-02. "IV. Windborne Objects and Missile Damage" at the Wayback Machine (archived 2014-05-04)
- Mitchell, Charles L. (April 1920). "Tornadoes of March 28, in Northeastern Illinois". Monthly Weather Review. 28 (4). Chicago, Illinois: United States Weather Bureau: 191–196. Bibcode:1920MWRv...48..191M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1920)48<191b:TOMINI>2.0.CO;2.
- O'Toole, John M. (1993). Tornado! 84 Minutes, 94 Lives. Worcester, Massachusetts: DATABooks. ISBN 0-9636277-0-8.
- Ortega, Kiel L.; Bluestein, H.; Burgess, D. W.; Garfield, G. S.; LaDue, J. G.; Manross, K. L.; Smith, B. R.; Smith, R.; Smith, T. M.; Snyder, J. C.; Stumpf, G. J. (January 25, 2012). Overview of the 24 May 2011 tornado outbreak. 92nd American Meteorological Society Annual Meeting (January 22–26, 2012).
- —; Burgess, D. W.; Garfield, G. S.; et al. (February 5, 2014). Damage Survey and Analysis of the 20 May 2013 Newcastle-Moore, OK, EF-5 Tornado. 94th American Meteorological Society Annual Meeting. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2014-03-12.
- "(Handout)" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-03-12.
- "(Manuscript)" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-03-12.
- Ostuno, E. J. (2008). Written at Grand Rapids, Michigan. Roger Edwards (ed.). "A Case Study in Forensic Meteorology: Investigating the 3 April 1956 Tornadoes in Western Lower Michigan" (PDF). e-Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology. 3 (1). Norman, Oklahoma: 1–33. doi:10.55599/ejssm.v3i1.14. S2CID 109690212.
- Piner, H. L. (1896). Sherman's Black Friday; May 15th, 1896: A History of the Great Sherman Tornado. Sherman, Texas: Register Printing House.
- Seeley, Mark W. (2006). Minnesota Weather Almanac. Minnesota Historical Society press. ISBN 0-87351-554-4.
- Snyder, Jeffrey C.; Bluestein, Howard B. (August 1, 2014). "Some Considerations for the Use of High-Resolution Mobile Radar Data in Tornado Intensity Determination". Weather and Forecasting. 29 (4): 799–827. Bibcode:2014WtFor..29..799S. doi:10.1175/WAF-D-14-00026.1. S2CID 122669043.
- Stevenson, Sarah A.; Miller, Connell S.; Sills, David M. L.; Kopp, Gregory A.; Rhee, Daniel M.; Lombardo, Franklin T. (July 2023). "Assessment of wind speeds along the damage path of the Alonsa, Manitoba EF4 tornado on 3 August 2018". Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics. 238: 105422. Bibcode:2023JWEIA.23805422S. doi:10.1016/j.jweia.2023.105422. S2CID 258127319.
- Wakimoto, R. M.; Murphey, H. V.; Dowell, D. C.; Bluestein, H. B. (2003). "The Kellerville Tornado during VORTEX: Damage Survey and Doppler Radar Analyses". Monthly Weather Review. 131 (10). American Meteorological Society: 2197–2221. Bibcode:2003MWRv..131.2197W. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2003)131<2197:TKTDVD>2.0.CO;2.
- Wurman, Joshua; Alexander, Curtis R. (January 2005). "The 30 May 1998 Spencer, South Dakota, Storm. Part II: Comparison of Observed Damage and Radar-Derived Winds in the Tornadoes". Monthly Weather Review. 133 (1): 97–119. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133...97W. doi:10.1175/MWR-2856.1.
- —; Kosiba, Karen; White, Trevor; et al. (April 6, 2021). "Supercell tornadoes are much stronger and wider than damage-based ratings indicate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (14): e2021535118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11821535W. doi:10.1073/pnas.2021535118. PMC 8040662. PMID 33753558.
- Yuko Murayama; Dimiter Velev; Plamena Zlateva, eds. (2019). Information Technology in Disaster Risk Reduction. Springer. ISBN 978-3-030-32169-7. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
- Benny Benyamin Nasution; Rahmat Widia Sembiring; Muhammad Syahruddin; Nursiah Mustari; Abdul Rahman Dalimunthe; Nisfan Bahri; Berta br Ginting; Zulkifli Lubis. "Real-Time Tornado Forecasting Using SLHGN". In Yuko Murayama, Dimiter Velev & Plamena Zlateva (2019), pp. 97–119.
Further reading
[edit]- Rincon, Paul (July 11, 2003). "UK, Holland top twister league". British Broadcasting Company. Retrieved 2023-07-25.
- "Observing tornadoes, dust devils, whirl winds, water spouts and land spouts". Australia Severe Weather. November 11, 2008. Archived from the original on 2022-11-27. Retrieved 2022-10-09.