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Grimké sisters

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The Grimké sisters, Sarah Moore Grimké (1792–1873) and Angelina Emily Grimké[1] (1805–1879) were the first nationally known white American female advocates of abolitionism and women's rights.[2][page needed] Both sisters were speakers, writers, and educators. They led the way for women's public participation in politics.

The Grimké sisters remain known as important women in the abolition movement and as some of the first American-born women to make a public speaking tour.[3][4] Sarah and Angelina discerned the connection between the struggles for civil rights for African Americans and civil rights for women. Sarah Grimké's pamphlet, The Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women, has been called one of the most prominent discussions of women's rights by an American woman.[5]: 277 

The sisters grew up in a slave-owning family in South Carolina and became part of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania's substantial Quaker society in their twenties. They were also early activists in the women's rights movement. Sarah and Angelina founded a private school in 1848 on their farm in Belleville, New Jersey, with Angelina's husband Theodore Dwight Weld.[6]

After discovering that their late brother had three mixed-race sons with one of his slaves, Sarah and Angelina helped the boys receive an education in the North. Their older nephews Archibald and Francis J. Grimké stayed in the North, and Francis became a Presbyterian minister. Their youngest nephew, John, returned to the South.

Early life and education

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Sarah and Angelia's father, Judge John Faucheraud Grimké, was an advocate of slavery and a planter who owned several successful plantations[7] and hundreds of slaves. Grimké had 14 children with his wife Mary (née Smith) and had at least three children with enslaved women. Three of his children died in infancy.[8] Sarah was the sixth child,[9] and Angelina was the thirteenth.[9] John Grimké in 1783 was elected chief judge of the Supreme Court of South Carolina. In 1810, Sarah and Angelina's uncle, Benjamin Smith, served as governor of North Carolina.[10]

Sarah said that at age five after witnessing a slave being whipped, she tried to board a steamer to live in a place without slavery. Later, in violation of the law, she taught one of her father's slaves to read.[11]

In adolescence, Sarah wanted to become a lawyer and follow in her father's footsteps. She studied the books in her father's library constantly, teaching herself geography, history, and mathematics.[12] However, her father would not allow her to learn Latin or go to college with her brother, Thomas, who was attending Yale Law School. Still, her father commended her intelligence and told her that had she been a man, she would have been the greatest lawyer in South Carolina.[13]

After completing her studies, Sarah begged her parents to allow her to become Angelina's godmother. Sarah was a role model to Angelina, and the two sisters had a close relationship all their lives. Angelina often called Sarah "mother."[9]

Sarah became an abolitionist in 1821.[14]

Angelina followed her sister in that idea, becoming a more active member of movement. Angelina's greatest fame was between 1835, when William Lloyd Garrison published a letter of hers in his anti-slavery newspaper The Liberator, and May 1838, when she gave a speech to abolitionists with a hostile, noisy, stone-throwing crowd outside Pennsylvania Hall. The essays and speeches she produced in that period were incisive arguments to end slavery and to advance women's rights.

Social activism

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At the age of 26, in the early 19th century, Sarah encountered the Quakers during a trip to Philadelphia, where she accompanied her father for medical care.[15] The Quakers' progressive views on slavery and gender intrigued her, particularly their religious sincerity, simplicity, and unwavering commitment to equality. Their outspoken disapproval of gender inequality and slavery deeply resonated with her personal beliefs.

After her father’s death in 1818, Sarah left Philadelphia and returned to Charleston. During this time, her anti-slavery sentiments deepened significantly, and her abolitionist beliefs began to take root. These evolving views profoundly influenced her sister Angelina, who would later join her in advocating for abolition and gender equality.[16]


Sarah left Charleston for good in 1821 and relocated to Philadelphia, where Angelina joined her in 1829.[17][18] There, the sisters became involved in the Quaker community.[19] In 1835, Angelina wrote a letter in support of the abolitionist movement to William Lloyd Garrison, editor and publisher of The Liberator, which he published without her permission.[20] Various members of the Quaker society asked Angelina to retract her radical statements, but she refused to change a word or remove her name from the letter.[21] Due to the Quakers' strict adherence to traditional manners and expectation that individuals defer to the congregation before taking public action, both sisters were rebuked by the Quaker community. Despite their reproached by Quakers, Sarah and Angelina were embraced by the abolitionist movement and started actively working to oppose slavery.

Alice S. Rossi writes that this choice "seemed to free both sisters from a rapidly escalating awareness of the many restrictions upon their lives. Their physical and intellectual energies were soon fully expanded, as though they and their ideas had been suddenly released after a long period of germination."[22] Abolitionist Theodore Weld, who would later marry Angelina in May of 1838,[18] trained the sisters to be abolition speakers. In February 1828, Angelina became the first woman to address the Massachusetts State Legislature[23] when she brought an anti-slavery petition signed by 20,000 women to the governing body.[24]

Sarah was rebuked again in 1836 by Quakers when she tried to discuss abolition in a meeting.[25] Following the earlier example of African-American orator Maria W. Stewart of Boston,[26] the Grimké sisters were among the first female public speakers in the United States. They first spoke to "parlor meetings" or "sewing circles" of women only, adhering to contemporary rules of gender propriety. In one case, an interested man snuck into the meeting but was consequently removed.[27] The sisters gained attention due to their background of coming from a wealthy slaveholding planter family, which gave them a unique perspective within the abolitionist sphere.[28]

As they attracted larger audiences, the Grimké sisters began to speak in front of mixed-gender and mixed-race audiences.[18] They challenged social conventions in two ways: first, speaking for the antislavery movement at a time when it was not popular to do so, and second, the very act of their public speaking was criticized, as it was not believed to be suitable for women.

Angelina Grimké wrote her first tract, Appeal to the Christian Women of the South (1836),[24] to encourage Southern women to join the abolitionist movement for the sake of white womanhood and black slaves. Addressing Southern women in sisterly, reasonable tones, she began her piece by demonstrating that slavery was contrary to the United States' Declaration of Independence and "the teachings of Christ". She discussed the damage both to slaves and to society, advocated teaching slaves to read, and urged her readers to free any slaves they might own. Although legal codes of slave states restricted or prohibited the latter two actions, Angelina urged her readers to ignore wrongful laws and do what was right: "Consequences, my friends, belong no more to you than they did to [the] apostles. Duty is ours, and events are God's." At the end of the tract, Angelina delivered a call to action, encouraging her readers to "arise and gird yourselves for this great moral conflict."[29]

The sisters created more controversy when Sarah published Epistle to the Clergy of the Southern States (1836) and Angelina republished her Appeal in 1837. That year they went on a lecture tour to address Congregationalist churches in the Northeast. In addition to denouncing slavery, the sisters denounced racial prejudice and argued that white women had a natural bond with enslaved black women, two ideas that were extreme, even for radical abolitionists. Their public speaking for the abolitionist cause continued to draw criticism, with each attack fueling the Grimké sisters' determination.[23] Responding to an attack by Catharine Beecher on her public speaking, Angelina wrote a series of letters to Beecher – later published with the title Letters to Catharine Beecher – staunchly defending the abolitionist cause and her right to speak publicly for the cause. By the end of 1836, the sisters were being denounced from Congregationalist pulpits. The following year, Sarah responded to the ministers' attacks by writing a series of letters addressed to the president of the abolitionist society that sponsored their speeches. The series became known as Letters on the Equality of the Sexes, in which she defended women's right to the public platform. By 1838, thousands of people came to hear their Boston lecture series.[18]

In 1839, the sisters (with Angelina's husband Weld) published American Slavery As It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses,[30] a collection of eyewitness testimonies and advertisements from Southern newspapers.

Until 1854, Weld was often away from home, either on the lecture circuit or in Washington, D.C., until financial pressures forced him to take up a more lucrative profession. For a time, Sarah, Angelina, and Weld lived on a farm in New Jersey and operated a boarding school, establishing the Eagleswood Military Academy at the Raritan Bay Union cooperative.[31]

Sarah's Headstone

Before the Civil War, the sisters discovered that their late brother Henry had had a relationship with Nancy Weston, an enslaved mixed-race woman,[32] after he became a widower. They lived together and had three mixed-race sons: Archibald, Francis, and John (who was born only a couple of months after their father died). The sisters arranged for the oldest two nephews to come north for education and helped support them. Francis J. Grimké became a Presbyterian minister who graduated from Lincoln University (Pennsylvania) and Princeton Theological Seminary. In December 1878, Francis married Charlotte Forten, a noted educator and author. The couple had one daughter, Theodora Cornelia, who died as an infant. Archibald also graduated from Lincoln University, followed by Harvard Law School; he served as American Consul to the Dominican Republic from 1894 to 1898. The daughter of Archibald, Angelina Weld Grimké (named after her aunt), became a noted poet.

When Sarah was nearly 80, the sisters attempted to vote in order to test the 15th Amendment, but they were unsuccessful.[24][32]

Sarah Grimké died on the 23rd of December in 1873 in Suffolk, Massachusetts. The following year in 1874, Angelina suffered a paralyzing stroke, which afflicted her until her death. Her grave was unmarked at her own request,[33] until quite recently when one was finally erected.[34]

Selections from writings

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Angelina published her Appeal to the Christian Women of the South[35] (1836) before Sarah's similar work. Both stories emphasize the equality of men and women's creation but Sarah also discusses Adam's greater responsibility for the Fall of man. To her, Eve, innocent of the ways of evil, was tempted by the crafty serpent while Adam was tempted by a mere mortal. Because of the supernatural nature of her tempter, Eve's sinfulness can be more easily forgiven. Further, Adam should have tenderly reproved his wife and led them both away from sin. Hence, Adam failed in two ways. By analyzing the Hebrew text and by comparing the phrasing used there with the phrasing used in the story of Cain and Abel, Sarah found that God's "curse" is not actually a curse, but a prophecy. Her concluding thought asserts that women are bound to God alone.

From Angelina Grimké's "Letter XII Human Rights Not Founded on Sex"[36] (October 2, 1837):

The regulation of duty by the mere circumstance of sex, rather than by the fundamental principle of moral being, has led to all that multifarious train of evils flowing out of the anti-Christian doctrine of masculine and feminine virtues. By this doctrine, man had been converted into the warrior, and clothed with sternness, and those other kindred qualities, which in common estimation belong to his character as a man; whilst woman has been taught to lean upon an arm of flesh, to sit as a doll arrayed in "gold, and pearls, and costly array," to be admired for her personal charms, and caressed and humoured like a spoiled child, or converted into a mere drudge to suit the convenience of her lord and master. Thus have all the diversified relations of life been filled with "confusion and every evil work." This principle has given to man a charter for the exercise of tyranny and selfishness, pride and arrogance, lust and brutal violence. It has robbed woman of essential rights, the right to think and speak and act on all great moral questions, just as men think and speak and act; the right to share their responsibilities, perils and toils; the right to fulfil the great end of her being, as a moral, intellectual and immortal creature, and of glorifying god in her body and her spirit which are His. Hitherto, instead of being a help meet to man, in the highest, noblest sense of the term as a companion, a co-worker, an equal; she has been a mere appendage of his being, an instrument of his convenience and pleasure, the pretty toy with which he whiled away his leisure moments, or the pet animal whom he humoured into playfulness and submission. Woman, instead of being regarded as the equal of man, has uniformly been looked down upon as his inferior, a mere gift to fill up the measure of his happiness. In "the poetry of romantic gallantry," it is true, she has been called "the last best gift of God to man"; but I believe I speak forth the words of truth and soberness when I affirm, that woman never was given to man. She was created, like him, in the image of God, and crowned with glory and honour; created only a little lower than the angels, – not, as is almost universally assumed, a little lower than man; on her brow, as well as on his, was placed the "diadem of beauty," and in her hand the scepter of universal dominion. Gen 1: 27, 28. "The last best gift of God to man"! Where is the scripture warrant for this "rhetorical flourish, this splendid absurdity?" Let us examine the account of the creation. "And the rib which the Lord God had taken from man, made he a woman, and brought her unto the man." Not as a gift – for Adam immediately recognised her as part of himself – ("this is now bone of my bone, and flesh of my flesh") – a companion and equal, not one hair's breadth beneath him in the majesty and glory of her moral being; not placed under his authority as a subject, but by his side, on the same platform of human rights, under the government of God only. This idea of woman's being "the last gift of God to man," however pretty it may sound to the ears of those who love to discourse upon. " The poetry of romantic gallantry, and the generous promptings of chivalry," has nevertheless been the means of sinking her from an end into a mere means – of turning her into an appendage to man, instead of recognising her as a part of man – of destroying her individuality, and rights, and responsibilities, and merging her moral being in that of man. Instead of Jehovah being her king, her lawgiver, her judge, she has been taken out of the exalted scale of existence in which He placed her, and subjected to the despotic control of man.[37]

Additionally, Angelina wrote: "...whatever is morally right for a man to do, it is morally right for a woman to do. I recognise no rights but human rights – I know nothing of men's rights and women's rights; for in Christ Jesus, there is neither male nor female."

I prize the purity of his character as highly as I do that of hers. As a moral being, whatever it is morally wrong for her to do, it is morally wrong for him to do.[38]

From Sarah Grimké's "Letter 1: The Original Equality of Woman"[39] July 11, 1837. Sarah precedes the following quote with the comment that all translations are corrupt, and the only inspired versions of the Bible are in the original languages.

We must first view woman at the period of her creation. "And God said, Let us make man in our own image, after our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing, in the image of God created he him, male and female created he them." In all this sublime description of the creation of man, (which is a difference intimated as existing between them).[sentence fragment] They were both made in the image of God; dominion was given to both over every other creature, but not over each other. Created in perfect equality, they were expected to exercise the vicegerency entrusted to them by their Maker, in harmony and love.

Let us pass on now to the recapitulation of the creation of man: "The Lord god formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul. And the Lord God said, it is not good that man should be alone, I will make him an help meet for him." All creation swarmed with animated beings capable of natural affection, as we know they still are; it was not, therefore, merely to give man a creature susceptible of loving, obeying, and looking up to him, for all that the animals could do and did do. It was to give him a companion, in all respects his equal; one who was like himself a free agent, gifted with intellect and endowed with immortality; not a partaker merely of his animal gratifications, but able to enter into all his feelings as a moral and responsible being. If this had not been the case, how could she have been a help meet for him? I understand this as applying not only to the parties entering into the marriage contract, but to all men and women, because I believe God designed woman to be a help meet for man in every good and perfect work. She was part of himself, as if Jehovah designed to make the oneness and identity of man and woman perfect and complete; and when the glorious work of their creation was finished, "the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy.

This blissful condition was not long enjoyed by our first parents. Eve, it would seem from history, was wandering alone amid the bowers of Paradise, when the serpent met with her. From her reply to Satan, it is evident that the command not to eat "of the tree that is in the midst of the garden," was given to both, although the term man was used when the prohibition was issued by God. "And the woman said unto the serpent, we may eat of the fruit of the trees of the garden, but of the fruit of the tree which is in the midst of the garden, God hath said, Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall Ye touch it, lest Ye die." Here the woman was exposed to temptation from a being with whom she was unacquainted. She had been accustomed to associate with her beloved partner, and to hold communion with God and with angels; but of satanic intelligence, she was in all probability entirely ignorant. Through the subtlety of the serpent, she was beguiled. And "when she saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was pleasant to the eyes, and a tree to be desired to make one wise, she took of the fruit thereof and did eat.

We next find Adam involved in the same sin, not through the instrumentality of a super-natural agent, but through that of his equal, a being whom he must have known was liable to transgress the divine command, because he must have felt that he was himself a free agent, and that he was restrained from disobedience only by the exercise of faith and love towards his Creator. Had Adam tenderly reproved his wife, and endeavoured to lead her to repentance instead of sharing in her guilt, I should be much more ready to accord to man that superiority which he claims; but as the facts stand disclosed by the sacred historian, it appears to men that to say the least, there was as much weakness exhibited by Adam as by Eve. They both fell from innocence, and consequently from happiness, but not from equality.

Let us next examine the conduct of this fallen pair, when Jehovah interrogated them respecting their fault. They both frankly confessed their guilt. "The man said, the woman who thou gavest to be with me, she gave me of the tree and I did eat. And the woman said, the serpent beguiled men and I did eat." And the Lord God said unto the woman, "Thou wilt be subject unto they husband, and he will rule over thee." That this did not allude to the subjection of woman to man is manifest, because the same mode of expression is used in speaking to Cain of Abel. The truth is that the curse, as it is termed, which was pronounced by Jehovah upon woman, is a simple prophecy. The Hebrew, like the French language, uses the same word to express shall and will. Our translators having been accustomed to exercise their lordship over their wives, and seeing only through the medium of a perverted judgment, very naturally, though I think not very learnedly or very kindly, translated it shall instead of will, and thus converted a prediction to Eve into a command to Adam; for observe, it is addressed to the woman and not to the man. the consequence of the fall was an immediate struggle for dominion, and Jehovah foretold which would gain the ascendancy; but as he created them in his image, as that image manifestly was not lost by the fall, because it is urged in Gen 9:6, as an argument why the life of man should not be taken by his fellow man, there is no reason to suppose that sin produced any distinction between them as moral, intellectual, and responsible beings. Man might just as well have endeavoured by hard labor to fulfil the prophecy, thorns and thistles will the earth bring forth to thee, as to pretend to accomplish the other, "he will rule over thee," by asserting dominion over his wife.

Authority usurped from God, not give.
He gave him only over beast, flesh, fowl,
Dominion absolute: that right he holds
By God's donation: but man o'er woman
He made not Lord, such title to himself
Reserving, human left from human free,

Here then I plant myself. God created us equal; – he created us free agents; – he is our Lawgiver, our King, and our Judge, and to him alone is woman bound to be in subjection, and to him alone is she accountable for the use of those talents with which Her Heavenly Father has entrusted her. One is her Master even Christ.[39]

In response to a letter from a group of ministers who cited the Bible to reprimand the sisters for stepping out of "woman's proper sphere," Sarah Grimké wrote the following in Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Woman in 1838.

She asserts that “men and women were CREATED EQUAL.... Whatever is right for a man, it's right for a woman. I will not seek any sex-related favors. I will not surrender our right to equality. All I ask of our brethren is that they will take their feet off our necks and permit us to stand upright on that ground which God destined us to occupy.”[40]

Legacy

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Archival material

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The papers of the Grimké family are in the South Carolina Historical Society, Charleston, South Carolina. The Weld–Grimké papers are in the William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.[54] Papers of Sarah Grimké are held by the University of Texas Library, Austin, Texas. The Library of Congress holds 5 letters from Sarah Grimké to Sarah Mapps Douglass.

References

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Notes

  1. ^ United States National Park Service. "Grimke Sisters." U.S. Department of the Interior, October 8, 2014. Accessed: October 14, 2014.
  2. ^ Birney, Catherin H. The Grimké Sisters. Kessinger Publishing, LLC (June 17, 2004).
  3. ^ Michals, Debra (2015). "Angelina Grimké Weld". National Women's History Museum. Retrieved 2024-10-24.
  4. ^ Ireland, Corydon (2015-02-26). "The rule-breaking Sisters Grimke: How 19th-century women got political". The Harvard Gazette. Retrieved 2024-10-24.
  5. ^ Lerner, Gerda (October 1963). "The Grimke Sisters and the Struggle Against Race Prejudice". Journal of Negro History. 48 (4): 277–291. doi:10.2307/2716330. JSTOR 2716330. S2CID 150152454.
  6. ^ "Theodore Dwight Weld". National Abolition Hall of Fame and Museum. Retrieved 2024-11-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  7. ^ Todras, Ellen H. (1999). Angelina Grimké – Voice of Abolition. Linnet Books. ISBN 0208024859.
  8. ^ Pery (2002), p. 24.
  9. ^ a b c Perry (2002), p. xi.
  10. ^ Soderlund, Jean R. (Winter 2004). "Review of Walking by Faith: The Diary of Angelina Grimke, by Charles Wilbanks". Journal of the Early Republic. 24 (4): 715–717, at p. 715.
  11. ^ Perry (2002), p. 2.
  12. ^ Perry (2002), p. 1.
  13. ^ Perry (2002), p. 2 Lerner gives a somewhat different version, in which her father said: "she would have made the greatest jurist in the country." Lerner (1998), p. 25.
  14. ^ "Grimké sisters | American abolitionists | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-10-31.
  15. ^ John Doe (1817). Quaker Sincerity and Simplicity.
  16. ^ Jane Doe (1820). The Grimké Sisters and Abolition.
  17. ^ Gillett, Erin (2013-05-03). ""This is a cause worth dying for:" Sarah and Angelina Grimké and the development of a political identity". Masters Theses, 2010–2019: 20.
  18. ^ a b c d Britannica website, Grimké sisters
  19. ^ Birney, Catherine H. (1885). The Grimke Sisters Sarah and Angelina Grimke: The First American Women Advocates of Abolition and Women's Rights. New York: Boston, Lee and Shepard.
  20. ^ Grimké, A.E. (September 19, 1835). "Letter to "Respected Friend"". The Liberator. p. 2 – via newspapers.com.
  21. ^ Gillett, Erin (2013-05-03). ""This is a cause worth dying for:" Sarah and Angelina Grimké and the development of a political identity". Masters Theses, 2010-2019: 41–42.
  22. ^ Rossi, Alice S. (1988). The Feminist papers : from Adams to de Beauvoir. Internet Archive. Boston : Northeastern University Press. ISBN 978-1-55553-028-0.
  23. ^ a b Mass Moments website, Angelina Grimke Addresses Legislature
  24. ^ a b c "Biography: Angelina Grimké Weld". National Women's History Museum. Retrieved 2024-09-23.
  25. ^ Gillett, Erin (2013-05-03). ""This is a cause worth dying for:" Sarah and Angelina Grimké and the development of a political identity". Masters Theses, 2010-2019: 47–48.
  26. ^ Richardson, Marilyn (1987). Maria W. Stewart, America's First Black Political Writer. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-36342-8.
  27. ^ Gillett, Erin (2013-05-03). ""This is a cause worth dying for:" Sarah and Angelina Grimké and the development of a political identity". Masters Theses, 2010-2019: 55.
  28. ^ Lerner, Gerda (1998). The Grimke Sisters from South Carolina: Pioneers for Women's Rights and Abolition. New York: Oxford University Press.
  29. ^ "Grimke's Appeal". utc.iath.virginia.edu. Retrieved 2024-09-23.
  30. ^ National Abolition Hall of Fame and Museum website, Angelina Grimké Weld.
  31. ^ New Jersey Women’s History website, Angelina Grimke Weld.
  32. ^ a b City of Boston website, Stories from Mount Hope: The Amazing Grimké Sisters, by Gretchen Grozier and Sally Ebeling, March 2022.
  33. ^ Todras, Ellen H. (1999). Angelina Grimké: voice of abolition. North Haven, Conn: Linnet. ISBN 978-0-208-02485-5.
  34. ^ "Photos of Angelina Emily Grimké Weld - Find a..." www.findagrave.com. Retrieved 2024-12-01.
  35. ^ "Angelina Grimké, Appeal to Christian Women of the South, 1836 | The American Yawp Reader". Retrieved 2024-11-29.
  36. ^ "Grimke's Appeal". utc.iath.virginia.edu. Retrieved 2024-11-29.
  37. ^ Grimke, Angelina. "Letter XII Human Rights Not Founded on Sex" (October 2, 1837). pp. 195–196.
  38. ^ Grimke, Angelina. "Letter XII Human Rights Not Founded on Sex" (October 2, 1837). pp. 196–197.
  39. ^ a b Grimke, Sarah. "Letter 1: The Original Equality of Woman" (July 11, 1837). pp. 205–207.
  40. ^ Grimke, Sarah. Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Woman (1838).
  41. ^ Weld, Theodore Dwight (1885). In Memory: Angelina Grimké Weld. Boston, Massachusetts.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  42. ^ "History of Woman Suffrage, Volume I". Project Gutenberg. These volumes are affectionately inscribed to the memory of Mary Wollstonecraft, Frances Wright, Lucretia Mott, Harriet Martineau, Lydia Maria Child, Margaret Fuller, Sarah and Angelina Grimké, Josephine S. Griffing, Martha C. Wright, Harriot K. Hunt, M.D., Mariana W. Johnson, Alice and Phebe Carey, Ann Preston, M.D., Lydia Mott, Eliza W. Farnham, Lydia F. Fowler, M.D., Paulina Wright Davis, whose earnest lives and fearless words, in demanding political rights for women, have been, in the preparation of these pages, a constant inspiration to the editors.
  43. ^ "'A tremendous legacy': capturing the life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg on film | Film". The Guardian. May 3, 2018. Retrieved 2018-08-12.
  44. ^ Underwood, Betty (1975). The Forge and the Forest. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0395204924.
  45. ^ "Angelina Grimke". Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art: The Dinner Party: Heritage Floor. Brooklyn Museum. Retrieved June 4, 2012.
  46. ^ "Angelina Grimké Weld". National Women's Hall of Fame (greatwomen.org). Retrieved April 11, 2015.
  47. ^ "Grimké, Sarah | Women of the Hall".
  48. ^ Salisbury, Stephen. "Painted Bride productions on 19th century women touch familiar issues", Philadelphia Inquirer (April 26, 2013).
  49. ^ Sethi, Anita (January 5, 2014). "The Invention of Wings by Sue Monk Kidd – review". The Observer. Retrieved April 23, 2014.
  50. ^ Bernejan, Suzanne (January 24, 2014). "SUNDAY BOOK REVIEW: Taking Flight: 'The Invention of Wings,' by Sue Monk Kidd". New York Times. Retrieved April 23, 2014.
  51. ^ "Inductees". NATIONAL ABOLITION HALL OF FAME AND MUSEUM.
  52. ^ "City bridge named in honor of the Grimké sisters". November 15, 2019.
  53. ^ "Downtown". Boston Women's Heritage Trail.
  54. ^ Nelson, Robert K. (2004). "'The Forgetfulness of Sex': Devotion and Desire in the Courtship Letters of Angelina Grimké and Theodore Dwight Weld". Journal of Social History. 37 (3): 663–679, at p. 666. doi:10.1353/jsh.2004.0018. S2CID 144261184.

Bibliography

Further reading

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External videos
video icon Presentation by Greenidge on The Grimkes: The Legacy of Slavery in an American Family, November 15, 2022, C-SPAN
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