Jump to content

Chinese expansionism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Evolution of Chinese territories in mainland China throughout Chinese history.

Territorial expansion took place during multiple periods of Chinese history, especially under the dynasties of Han, Tang, Yuan, and Qing. Chinese expansionism as a motivation or even coherent phenomenon has been contentiously discussed in regard to the contemporary People's Republic of China and its territorial claims.[1]

Historic background

[edit]

Qin and Han dynasties

[edit]

China slowly became a major geopolitical power center during the ancient era.[2][3][4][5][6][7] Various ancient Chinese dynasties enlarged their realms.[8] However, it was only under the unified Qin dynasty that China truly started its process of expansion into other nations. Qin's expansionism led to its first contacts with the Xiongnu, the Yue tribes, and extended its reach to the Korean Peninsula.[9]

The Han dynasty marked the height of early Chinese expansionism. Under Emperor Wu of Han, the Han China became the regional center of geopolitical influence in East Asia, projecting much of its imperial power on its neighbors.[5][10] Han China managed to conquer northern Korea and northern Vietnam, annexing and incorporating several parts of these territories.[11][12][13] The Han dynasty also managed to conquer various nomadic tribes as far north as what is now modern Mongolia and Siberia and gained control over western regions such as modern Xinjiang and parts of Central Asia..[14]

Following the fall of the Han dynasty, the Korea peninsula gained political independence from The Central Plain dynasties, leaving only northern Vietnam remaining under Chinese control, and the Three Kingdoms era temporarily halted Chinese expansionism. Nonetheless, the Cao Wei, Shu Han and Eastern Wu managed to extend its territorial gains in some parts under their territorial control.[15] Once the Three Kingdoms ended and establishment of the Jin dynasty, Chinese expansionism halted for four centuries, as China was in dire need to consolidate back its borderland following its significant population losses.[citation needed]

The Sui dynasty, which reunified China after another 350 years of divisions, attempted to embark back on expansionism, but four disastrous campaigns to Goguryeo put the dynasty to an end.[16]

Tang dynasty

[edit]

The establishment of the Tang dynasty marked the comeback of Chinese expansionism. Like its Han predecessor, the Tang empire established itself as a medieval East Asian geopolitical superpower that marked another golden age for Chinese history.[17] Tang China managed to maintain its grip over northern Vietnam and Korea.[18] The Tang empire also managed to extend its control over Xinjiang and Central Asia, reaching as far west as the Aral Sea, Caspian Sea and the Lake Baikal for several decades.[19][20][21] China also gained loyalty from the Turkic and Sogdian tribes at the northern and western borders.[22] The Tang managed to encroach into the Tibetan territory and occupy Lhasa, until they had to abandon such expansionist pursuits due to difficult climate.[23]

The Tang Chinese expansion was checked following the Battle of Talas in modern-day Kyrgyzstan, when the Tang was defeated by the Arabs.[24] However, China remained strong enough to process a significant weight until the An Lushan Rebellion which crippled the Tang.[25] The rebellion partly led to the collapse and implosion of the Tang into several warring states and kingdoms. After the Tang collapse, China would be divided into several smaller nations until the unification during the Yuan dynasty and Mongol empire.[23][26]

Fragmentation during Song, Jin, Liao dynasties

[edit]

When the Tang dynasty collapsed, China entered the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. After this period, China remained fragmented and was divided into a number of smaller countries that emerged from the turmoil. These included the Song dynasty to the south and the Liao and Jin dynasties to the north. The Song, Liao, and Jin would continue to fight each other for centuries. As a result of perpetual instability, the Vietnamese eventually seceded from the union in the Battle of Bạch Đằng in 938, Song dynasty, unified much of China's south and launched an invasion of northern Vietnam in the process, but was repelled by Lê Hoàn.[citation needed] From then, the Song dynasty had struggled to reconsolidate back the borderland and inner territories, as well as repeated wars with Vietnam, the Liao dynasty, the Jin dynasty and the Western Xia.[27][28][29][30] This had prevented the Song dynasty from ever taking any serious military expeditions. These various kingdoms (Song, Liao, Jin, Xia) would fight each other until they were all conquered and unified by the Yuan dynasty in 1279.[citation needed]

Yuan dynasty

[edit]

The Yuan dynasty, as a Khagan-ruled division of the Mongol Empire and an imperial Chinese dynasty, was founded by the Mongols in the traditional Chinese style in 1271.[31] The Mongol Empire was characterized by unprecedented territorial expansionism north and west, reaching as far as Eastern Europe and the Middle East, although the Yuan dynasty based in China was unable to exert actual power over the west khanates due to the disintegrated nature of the Mongol Empire. The Yuan dynasty in China undertook attempts to conquer other territories further east and south too. It launched two invasions of Burma, with the first invasion delivering a devastating blow to the Pagan Kingdom and effectively resulted in its collapse.[32] The Yuan dynasty also managed to conquer Korea and Tibet, thereby incorporating Tibet into Chinese territory for the first time in history.[33] However, the Yuan dynasty had been unsuccessful in its attempt to conquer Vietnam, with the Mongols being repelled by Trần Thái Tông. Furthermore, The Yuan's naval expeditions to invade Java and Japan yielded disastrous results, eventually leading to the end of Sino-Mongol expansionist desires.[32][34][35][36]

Decline during Ming dynasty

[edit]

Following the collapse of the Yuan dynasty, the newly established Ming dynasty was initially reluctant to embark on expansionism due to destruction from rebellions in the waning years of the Yuan dynasty. The first Ming emperor, Hongwu, was openly against expansionism and was more concerned with killing his internal political opponents than dealing with outside threats.[37] He specifically warned future Emperors only to defend against foreign barbarians, and not engage in military campaigns for glory and conquest.[38] However, once Hongwu died, the reign of Yongle saw the Ming attempt to expand its territories. The Ming launched an invasion to Vietnam, eventually leading to the fourth Chinese domination. However, the Ming was defeated in the Battle of Tốt Động – Chúc Động 20 years later. Moreover, the Ming launched an attack on the Mongols and Northern Yuan to the north, but the Ming failed, and their emperors were even captured by the Mongols in the Tumu Crisis.[39][40][41] Following its failures in Vietnam and the north, the Ming dynasty started to concentrate only in internal affairs, and refused to make further interventions or expeditions, except for naval expeditions and trades such as the Ming treasure voyages by Zheng He. Rather than expanding, the Ming was more defensive in nature and faced internal rebellions such as the Rebellion of Cao Qin and Bozhou rebellion as well as invasions from the north such as from the Later Jin (eventually the Qing) and the Japanese under Toyotomi Hideyoshi in the Imjin war.

Qing dynasty

[edit]

The Qing dynasty was a Manchu-ruled dynasty, descended from the Jurchens which founded the Jin dynasty earlier. The dynasty embraced Chinese expansionism. By the late 19th century, in response to competition with other states, the Qing government of China attempted to exert direct control of its frontier areas by conquest or, if already under military control, conversion into provinces.

The ability of Qing China to project power into Central Asia came about because of two changes, one social and one technological. The social change was that under the Qing dynasty, from 1642, the Chinese military forces were organized around cavalry which was more suited for power projection than prior Chinese infantry. The technological change was advances in artillery which negated the military advantage that the people of the steppe had with their cavalry. The Dzungar Khanate was the last great independent nomadic power on the steppe of Central Asia. The Dzungars were deliberately exterminated in a brutal campaign during the Dzungar genocide by Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols. It has been estimated that more than a million people were slaughtered, and it took generations for it to recover.[42] The Qing ruling family Aisin Gioro was supportive of Tibetan Buddhism and many in the ruling class adopted the religion.

The Qing dynasty was seen to be the return of Chinese expansionist policies. Under the Qing rule, China expanded beyond the Great Wall and started to annex more territories in process. The Qing invaded Korea, managed to conquer Mongolia, and also annexed modern territories of Xinjiang and Tibet as well.[43][44][45][46][47] The Qing also managed to extend its control into Central Asia for once more, mostly concentrated in what would be today Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.[48][49] The Qing also destroyed the Kingdom of Tungning of Koxinga, and annexed Taiwan as well.[50][51] This marked for the first time, China managed to directly control Xinjiang, Taiwan, Tibet, Central Asia and Mongolia. China also marked its claims far to Sakhalin, even though the Qing didn't manage to control it; or even to Kashmir where it fought a bitter war against the Sikhs.[52]

Ming loyalists led by Koxinga invaded Taiwan and expelled Dutch colonialists from the island during the Siege of Fort Zeelandia and founded the Chinese Kingdom of Tungning. The Ming loyalists quickly moved to replace the institutions and culture of Dutch colonial rule with Han Chinese colonial rule. Language and religious institutions left by the Dutch were closed and replaced with Confucian temples and Chinese language schools for both Han Chinese and aboriginals. Officials encouraged new immigration of Han Chinese from China into territory further inland, turning aboriginal lands into new farmland.[53] After fighting between the Ming loyalists and the Qing during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, the Qing attacked the Kingdom of Tungning. the Qing won the Battle of Penghu and the Ming loyalists submitted to Qing rule. Tungning was annexed as part of Fujian. The Qing were "reluctant colonizers" but became convinced of Taiwan's value to their empire due to the threat the island posed if used as a base by rival powers, and by its abundant resources.[54] The Qing turned Taiwan into its own province in 1885, after Japanese interest and a defeated French invasion attempt.

After the British expedition to Tibet in the waning days of the Qing dynasty, the Qing responded by sending Zhao Erfeng to further integrate Tibet into China. He succeeded in abolishing the powers of the Tibetan local leaders in Kham and appointing Chinese magistrates in their places by 1909–1910. Qing forces were also sent to Ü-Tsang in 1910 to establish a direct control over Tibet proper, though a province was never established in this area.

The Qing campaign against Burma (Myanmar) (1765–1769) was its most disastrous and costly frontier war. It ended in a military defeat but the Qing rulers could not accept Burma as an equal, and when diplomatic relations were resumed in 1790, the Qing court considered it a restoration of Chinese suzerainty.[55]

The Qing dynasty established a tributary relationship with Joseon dynasty Korea following the Qing invasion of Joseon in 1636. In 1882, China and Korea signed the China–Korea Treaty of 1882 stipulating that Korea was a dependency of China and granted Chinese merchants the right to conduct overland and maritime business freely within Korean borders as well as the Chinese unilateral extraterritoriality privileges in civil and criminal cases.[56] China also obtained concessions in Korea, such as the Chinese concession of Incheon.[57][58] However, Qing China lost its influence over Korea following the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895.

Republic of China

[edit]

When the Qing collapsed in 1912, the newly established Republic of China (ROC) claimed inheritance of all territories held by the Qing dynasty. When both Tibet and Outer Mongolia declared their independence, they were not recognized by the Republic of China.[59] Most of the area comprising the present-day Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) became a de facto independent polity[60][61] except for border areas such as Amdo and Eastern Kham.[62]

The Republic of China focused its efforts on consolidating their control over Chinese territories and refused to embrace expansionist policy. Republic of China, however, faced numerous pressure from the expansionist Empire of Japan in 1915, with the Twenty-One Demands caused public uproars.[63] It also faced strong opposition from the Soviet Union, which also embraced expansionist policy, leading to the border conflict of 1929.[64] The Soviets and Japanese meddling into Chinese affairs and the lack of compromises from Western leaders over Japanese and Russian expansionism made the work difficult, as Russia had interests with regard to Xinjiang, and Japanese invasion in northeast China at 1931.[65][66] On the same time, the Chinese Civil War also prevented any attempts of a possible Chinese expansion.[67]

When World War II broke out, nonetheless Chiang Kai-shek had sought to restore Chinese influence. Being a major ally and one of the Big Four, Chiang wanted to restore Chinese influence in Korea and Southeast Asia, in a vision for a new Asia under Chiang's command.[68][69] Once the World War II ended, Chiang Kai-shek started trying to implement the project, by sending troops to occupy northern Vietnam.[70] Later, as the Chinese Civil War resumed, Chiang had to redeploy most of his army to fight the now-stronger communist force inside the border. In 1949, the government of Republic of China lost the war and was forced to retreat to Taiwan where it continues to rule today.

People's Republic of China

[edit]

Following the de facto end of the Chinese Civil War, Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949[71] and incorporated Xinjiang after absorbing the Second East Turkestan Republic, which had rebelled against the ROC with help from the Soviet Union[72] before the latter switched side.[73] The PRC annexed Tibet through a series of events that involved negotiations with the Government of Tibet, a military conflict in the Chamdo area of western Kham in October 1950, and the Seventeen Point Agreement, which was ratified by the 14th Dalai Lama in October 1951[74] but later repudiated.[75][76][77]

The Five Fingers of Tibet was a territorial claim attributed to Mao Zedong that considers Tibet to be China's right hand palm, with five fingers on its periphery: Ladakh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and North-East Frontier Agency (now known as Arunachal Pradesh) that are considered China's responsibility to "liberate".[78][79][80] The policy has never been discussed in official Chinese public statements and is now dormant, but concerns have often been raised over its possible continued existence or revival.[81]

Following Dalai Lama's escape to India, China and India fought a border war in 1962, where China gained Aksai Chin and stampeded into Arunachal Pradesh (called South Tibet in China), before retreating from the latter over increasing turmoil.[82] Before that, China also sought to take over Taiwan, then under the authority of the rival Republic of China, causing the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis, but was unsuccessful due to American threats in response.[83] China also sought to take over Sikkim in 1967, but it was unsuccessful.[84] A Chinese map published in 1961 showed China claiming territories in Bhutan, Nepal and the Kingdom of Sikkim.[85] Incursions by Chinese soldiers and Tibetan herdsmen allying with the Chinese government also provoked tensions in Bhutan.[85][86]

In 1974, China launched its first naval expedition to reclaim the Paracel Islands and defeated the 50-strong South Vietnamese occupation force.[87] Tensions triggered between China and later unified communist Vietnam led to the Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979.[88] China and Vietnam later fought another bitter skirmish in the South China Sea in 1988, resulting in China's consolidation of some disputed islands.[89]

In the opening speech at the 19th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping emphasized the PRC's sovereignty over Taiwan, stating that "We have sufficient abilities to thwart any form of Taiwan independence attempts."[90]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Hsu, Francis L. K. (1978). "The Myth of Chinese Expansionism". Journal of Asian and African Studies. 13 (3–4). Brill: 184–195. doi:10.1163/15685217-90007142. ISSN 0021-9096.
  2. ^ Ball, Desmond (2005). The Transformation of Security in the Asia/Pacific Region. Routledge. p. 104. ISBN 978-0714646619.
  3. ^ Walker, Hugh Dyson (2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 119.
  4. ^ Amy Chua; Jed Rubenfeld (2014). The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. Penguin Press HC. p. 121. ISBN 978-1594205460.
  5. ^ a b Kang, David C. (2012). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute. Columbia University Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0231153195.
  6. ^ Goucher, Candice; Walton, Linda (2012). World History: Journeys from Past to Present. Routledge (published 11 September 2012). p. 232. ISBN 978-0415670029.
  7. ^ Smolnikov, Sergey (2018). Great Power Conduct and Credibility in World Politics. Springer. ISBN 9783319718859.
  8. ^ "An introduction to ancient China (article)". Khan Academy.
  9. ^ "The Qin Dynasty of Ancient China: Unity and Chaos". Retrieved 18 June 2023.
  10. ^ Cohen, Warren (2000). East Asia at the Center : Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. Columbia University Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0231101080.
  11. ^ Chua, Amy (2003). World On Fire. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. pp. 33. ISBN 978-0385721868.
  12. ^ "The Rise and Fall of Gojoseon Dynasty – What da Korea". sites.google.com. Archived from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
  13. ^ Di Cosmo, Nicola (2009). "Han Frontiers: Toward an Integrated View". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 129 (2): 199–214. JSTOR 40593813.
  14. ^ Newby, L. J. (1999). "The Chinese Literary Conquest of Xinjiang". Modern China. 25 (4): 451–474. doi:10.1177/009770049902500403. JSTOR 189447. S2CID 144387079.
  15. ^ Wu, Xiaotong; Hein, Anke; Zhang, Xingxiang; Jin, Zhengyao; Wei, Dong; Huang, Fang; Yin, Xijie (1 December 2019). "Resettlement strategies and Han imperial expansion into southwest China: a multimethod approach to colonialism and migration". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 11 (12): 6751–6781. Bibcode:2019ArAnS..11.6751W. doi:10.1007/s12520-019-00938-w. S2CID 204330124.
  16. ^ "우리역사넷". contents.history.go.kr.
  17. ^ "Tang Dynasty – The Art of Asia – Chinese Dynasty Guide". archive.artsmia.org.
  18. ^ Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (15 December 2014). Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107098466 – via Google Books.
  19. ^ Gan, Chunsong (2019). A Concise Reader of Chinese Culture. Springer. p. 24. ISBN 9789811388675.
  20. ^ Chan, Leo (2003). One Into Many: Translation and the Dissemination of Classical Chinese Literature. Rodopi. p. 285. ISBN 9789042008151.
  21. ^ Lockard, Craig (2020). Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History. Cengage Learning. p. 260. ISBN 9780357365472.
  22. ^ Drompp, Michael R. (2005). "Imperial State Formation in Inner Asia: The Early Turkic Empires (6Th to 9Th Centuries)". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 58 (1): 101–111. doi:10.1556/AOrient.58.2005.1.8. JSTOR 23658608.
  23. ^ a b "The History Guy:Wars and Conflicts Between Tibet and China". www.historyguy.com.
  24. ^ Putz, Catherine. "The Battle That Kept the Chinese Out of Central Asia". thediplomat.com.
  25. ^ "An Lushan Rebellion – The Devastating An-Shi Rebellion (755–763)". Totally History. 6 December 2011.
  26. ^ Drompp, Michael R. (29 March 2017). "The Uyghur Empire (744–840)". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.53. ISBN 9780190277727. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  27. ^ "History of Vietnam from early independence to present". Retrieved 18 June 2023.
  28. ^ Smith, Paul Jakov (23 August 2015). "A Crisis in the Literati State: The Sino-Tangut War and the Qingli-Era Reforms of Fan Zhongyan, 1040–1045". Journal of Song-Yuan Studies. 45: 59–137. doi:10.1353/sys.2015.0002. S2CID 164567132 – via Project MUSE.
  29. ^ Kim, Alexander A. (2013). "Who began the wars between the Jin and Song empires? (based on materials used in Jurchen studies in Russia)" (PDF). Annales d'Université Valahia Targoviste, Section d'Archéologie et d'Histoire. 15 (2): 59–66 – via DASH.
  30. ^ "The Song Dynasty | Boundless World History". courses.lumenlearning.com.
  31. ^ Franke, Herbert; Twitchett, Denis (1978). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge University Press. p. 624. ISBN 9780521243315.
  32. ^ a b Hays, Jeffrey. "YUAN-MONGOL INVASIONS OF BURMA, JAVA AND VIETNAM | Facts and Details". factsanddetails.com.
  33. ^ Haw, Stephen G. (January 2014). "The Mongol conquest of Tibet". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 24 (1): 37–49. doi:10.1017/S1356186313000679. ISSN 0035-869X.
  34. ^ "India Should Be Grateful to Alauddin Khilji for Thwarting the Mongol Invasions". The Wire.
  35. ^ "How a Javanese King Defeated a Powerful Mongolian Emperor? | Seasia.co". Good News from Southeast Asia.
  36. ^ "History and Memory: The Mongol Invasions of Japan | TEA Online Curriculum Projects | University of Colorado Boulder". www.colorado.edu.
  37. ^ Edward L. Dreyer (1982). Early Ming China: a political history, 1355–1435. Stanford University Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-8047-1105-0. Archived from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
  38. ^ Kenneth Warren Chase (2003). Firearms: a global history to 1700. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-521-82274-9. Archived from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
  39. ^ Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John K., eds. (1988). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644. Contributors Denis Twitchett, John K. Fairbank (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 229. ISBN 978-0521243322. Archived from the original on 17 July 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
  40. ^ Wang, Yuan-kang (19 March 2012). "Managing Regional Hegemony in Historical Asia: The Case of Early Ming China". The Chinese Journal of International Politics. 5 (2): 136. doi:10.1093/cjip/pos006.
  41. ^ "Sound strategies by Le Loi – the eminent leader of Lam Son uprising (1418–1427) – National Defence Journal". tapchiqptd.vn. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
  42. ^ Tyler, Christian C. (2004). Wild West China: The Taming of Xinjiang. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-3533-6. OCLC 55000814.
  43. ^ Theobald, Ulrich. "The Mongols during the Qing period (www.chinaknowledge.de)". www.chinaknowledge.de.
  44. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 June 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  45. ^ Cosmo, Nicola Di (23 April 2016). "The Extension of Ch'ing rule over Mongolia, Sinkiang, and Tibet, 1636–1800". The Cambridge History of China. pp. 111–145. doi:10.1017/CHO9781139193078.005. ISBN 9781139193078. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  46. ^ "Ally to Hegemon: The Early Manchu Khans' Changing Understanding of Tibet (1607–1735)". www.nwo.nl.
  47. ^ "[FICTION VS. HISTORY] 'The Fortress' captures drama, but misses details: There's more to the Qing invasion of Joseon than what audiences see in the film". koreajoongangdaily.joins.com.
  48. ^ Onuma, Takahiro (23 August 2014). "The Qing Dynasty and Its Central Asian Neighbors". Saksaha: A Journal of Manchu Studies. 12 (20200320). doi:10.3998/saksaha.13401746.0012.004. hdl:2027/spo.13401746.0012.004.
  49. ^ Perdue, Peter C. (2010). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674057432.
  50. ^ Wang, Joan S. H. (2011). "In the Name of Legitimacy: Taiwan and Overseas Chinese during the Cold War Era". China Review. 11 (2): 65–90. JSTOR 23462345.
  51. ^ "Tensions Between China and Taiwan Go Back Further Than You Think". OZY. 31 May 2019. Archived from the original on 3 October 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
  52. ^ "Brawling on the border: India-China tensions, and what they mean for construction – - GCR". www.globalconstructionreview.com. 18 June 2020.
  53. ^ Wills J. Jr (2006), "The Seventeenth Century Transformation", in Taiwan: A New History, Rubinstein, M. ed., M. E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-1495-7.
  54. ^ Andrade, Tonio (2008). How Taiwan became Chinese : Dutch, Spanish, and Han colonization in the seventeenth century. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12855-1. OCLC 184821622.
  55. ^ Dai, Yingcong (February 2004). "A Disguised Defeat: The Myanmar Campaign of the Qing Dynasty". Modern Asian Studies. 38 (1): 145–189. doi:10.1017/S0026749X04001040. ISSN 0026-749X. JSTOR 3876499. S2CID 145784397.
  56. ^ Duus, Peter (1998). The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 54. ISBN 0-52092-090-2.
  57. ^ "Guide to Incheon's Chinatown". 3 March 2022. Retrieved 30 September 2023.
  58. ^ Fuchs, Eckhardt (2017). A New Modern History of East Asia. V&R unipress GmbH. p. 97. ISBN 9783737007085.
  59. ^ Kobayashi, Ryosuke (23 January 2014). "Tibet in the Era of 1911 Revolution". Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies. 3 (1): 91–113. doi:10.1080/24761028.2014.11869072. S2CID 126736361.
  60. ^ Shakya 1999 p.4
  61. ^ Goldstein (1989). A History of Modern Tibet, Vol. 1. p. 815. Tibet unquestionably controlled its own internal and external affairs during the period from 1913 to 1951 and repeatedly attempted to secure recognition and validation of its de facto autonomy/independence.
  62. ^ Shakya 1999 p.6,27. Feigon 1996 p.28
  63. ^ Twenty-One Demandsfirstworldwar.com Archived 2 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  64. ^ Zatsepine, Victor (22 September 2018). "The 1929 Sino-Soviet War: The War Nobody Knew". The Historian. 80 (3): 632. doi:10.1111/hisn.12995. S2CID 150182596.
  65. ^ Zhang, Liao (18 June 2012). "Maximizing Soviet Interests in Xinjiang: The USSR's Penetration in Xinjiang from the Mid-1930s to the Early 1940s". Retrieved 18 June 2023 – via etd.ohiolink.edu.
  66. ^ "4-1 Manchurian Incident of 1931 | Modern Japan in archives". www.ndl.go.jp.
  67. ^ "The Chinese Civil War: 1927–37". prezi.com.
  68. ^ Chang, Teh-Kuang (1986). "Chiang Kai-shek And World Peace". Journal of Chinese Studies. 3 (2): 223–242. JSTOR 44288026.
  69. ^ Fifield, Russell H. (1 August 1976). "Multipolarity and Southeast Asia a post-Vietnam perspective". Australian Outlook. 30 (2): 304–321. doi:10.1080/10357717608444571.
  70. ^ "Review of Vietnam 1946: How the War Began". Retrieved 18 June 2023.
  71. ^ "Xinjiang summary | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 3 December 2024.
  72. ^ Ke, Wang; Fletcher, Carissa (2018). The East Turkestan Independence Movement, 1930s to 1940s. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. ISBN 978-962-996-769-7.
  73. ^ "How Stalin Elevated the Chinese Communist Party to Power in Xinjiang in 1949 | Wilson Center". www.wilsoncenter.org.
  74. ^ A. Tom Grunfeld (30 July 1996). The Making of Modern Tibet. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 107–. ISBN 978-0-7656-3455-9.
  75. ^ "The Dalai Lama's Press Statements - Statement issued at Tezpur" (PDF). 18 April 1959. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2022.
  76. ^ Anne-Marie Blondeau; Katia Buffetrille (2008). Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100 Questions. University of California Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-520-24464-1. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2015. It was evident that the Chinese were not prepared to accept any compromises and that the Tibetans were compelled, under the threat of immediate armed invasion, to sign the Chinese proposal.
  77. ^ Tsepon Wangchuk Deden Shakabpa (October 2009). One Hundred Thousand Moons: An Advanced Political History of Tibet. BRILL. pp. 953, 955. ISBN 978-90-04-17732-1.
  78. ^ "India, China and the Nathu La India, China and the Nathu La Understanding Beijing's Larger Strategy towards the Region" (PDF). Institute of Peace & Conflict Studies. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
  79. ^ Haidar, Suhasini (18 June 2020). "History, the standoff, and policy worth rereading". The Hindu.
  80. ^ Theys, Sarina (25 January 2018). "Running hot and cold: Bhutan-India-China relations". London School of Economics.
  81. ^ Grover, B. S. K. (1974). Sikkim and India: Storm and Consolidation. Jain Brothers. pp. 152–153 – via archive.org.
  82. ^ "Sino Indian war of 1962 – Manifest IAS". 2 June 2020. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
  83. ^ Halperin, Morton H. (1 January 1966). "The 1958 Taiwan Straits Crisis: A Documented History" – via www.rand.org. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  84. ^ "Remembering the war we forgot: 51 years ago, how India gave China a bloody nose". ThePrint. 1 October 2018.
  85. ^ a b Savada, Andrea Matles (September 1991). Nepal and Bhutan : country studies. Library of Congress. pp. 330–333. ISBN 0844407771. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
  86. ^ Balaji, Mohan (12 January 2008). "In Bhutan, China and India collide". Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  87. ^ "Lessons from the Battle of the Paracel Islands". thediplomat.com.
  88. ^ "Ask The Vietnamese About War, And They Think China, Not The U.S." NPR.org.
  89. ^ GRIN – The Impact of the Johnson South Reef Skirmish on the South China Sea Conflict. 28 July 2016. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  90. ^ hermesauto (18 October 2017). "19th Party Congress: Any attempt to separate Taiwan from China will be thwarted". The Straits Times. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 19 October 2017.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Chan, Steve. China's Troubled Waters: Maritime Disputes in Theoretical Perspective (Cambridge UP, 2016) excerpt
  • Chang, Chun-shu. The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Nation, State, and Imperialism in Early China, ca. 1600 B.C.–A.D. 8 (Volume 1, University of Michigan Press, 2007).
  • Cohen, Warren I. (2000). East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. Columbia University Press. p. passim. ISBN 978-0231502511.
  • Hawksley, Humphrey. Asian Waters: The Struggle Over the South China Sea and the Strategy of Chinese Expansion (2018) excerpt
  • Mancall, Mark. China at the Center: 300 Years of Foreign Policy (1984)
  • Reeves, Jeffrey. "Imperialism and the Middle Kingdom: the Xi Jinping administration's peripheral diplomacy with developing states." Third World Quarterly 39.5 (2018): 976–998.
  • Setzekorn, Eric. "Chinese Imperialism, Ethnic Cleansing, and Military History, 1850–1877." Journal of Chinese Military History 4.1 (2015): 80–100.
  • Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. passim. ISBN 978-1851096725.
  • Toje, Asle. Will China's Rise Be Peaceful?: Security, Stability, and Legitimacy (Oxford UP, 2017). excerpt
  • Westad, Odd Arne. Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750 (2012) excerpt